Information processing during physical exercise: a chronometric and electromyographic study

Medium chain triglycerides with a C8:C10 ratio of 30:70 enhances cognitive performance and mitigates the cognitive decline associated with prolonged exercise in young and healthy adults

INTRODUCTION

Prolonged exercise has been linked to a decline in cognitive function due to a variety of factors, such as a drop in oxygen in the prefrontal cortex and an increase in stress hormones and neurotransmitters. Medium chain triglycerides (MCTs) may possibly offset this decline as they provide energy for the brain via both direct and indirect pathways, alongside promoting chronic physiological adaptations within the brain.

METHODS

Participants were divided into two groups; MCT (n = 9) and Placebo (n = 10). The MCT gels contained 6 g of MCT with a C8:C10 ratio of 30:70, whereas the placebo gels contained carbohydrates of similar calorific value to the MCT gels. Participants visited the laboratory on three occasions (familiarisation/fitness test, pre-supplementation, post-supplementation), during which they performed a battery of cognitive tasks assessing domains such as processing speed, working memory, selective attention, decision making and coordination, before and after a prolonged bout of exercise (60 mins at 90% gas exchange threshold (GET). A 2-week supplementation period between visits 2 and 3 involved the ingestion of 2 gels per day.

RESULTS

Exercise resulted in detriments in most cognitive tasks pre-supplementation for both groups, and post-supplementation for the Placebo group (main effect ps< 0.05). Post-supplementation, the effect of exercise was mediated in the MCT group for all cognitive tasks (main effect ps< 0.05), except for the Digit and Spatial Span Backwards test phases (main effect ps> 0.05). Furthermore, MCT supplementation enhanced before-exercise cognitive performance and in some measures, such as working memory, this was maintained after-exercise (interaction effect ps> 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Chronic MCT supplementation enhanced before-exercise cognitive performance and offset the cognitive decline caused by a prolonged bout of exercise. In some cases, improvements in before-exercise cognitive performance were maintained after-exercise.

Go/no-go task performance of Japanese children: Differences by sex, grade, and lifestyle habits

Background

Japanese children face critical psychological challenges that urgently need to be addressed.

Objective

This study aimed to clarify performance differences in go/no-go tasks among Japanese elementary and junior high students by sex and grade and comprehensively investigate the relationship between children's lifestyle habits and performance.

Methods

In total, 4,482 (2,289 males, 2,193 females) 1st grade elementary to 3rd grade junior high students (6-15 years old) participated. We conducted a survey and the go/no-go experiments in the participating schools on weekday mornings from November 2017 to February 2020. We collected data on the number of errors in the go/no-go tasks in response to visual stimuli (commission errors in the no-go tasks; omission errors in the go tasks); and on lifestyle habits (i.e., sleep, screen time, and physical activity) using questionnaires.

Results

For the commission errors, the results demonstrated differences by sex and grade; for the omission errors, differences were only observed by grade. Additionally, we analysed the relationship between both types of errors and sex, grade, sleep conditions, screen time, and physical activity using binomial logistic regression analysis. Commission errors were significantly related to sex and grade whereas omission errors were related to grade, bedtime, screen time, and physical activity.

Conclusions

Our results highlighted that children's cognitive functions are related to their lifestyle habits (i.e., sleep conditions, screen time, and physical activity) in addition to sex and grade.

Changes in working memory performance and cortical activity during acute aerobic exercise in young adults

This study aimed to examine the concurrent performance of working memory and cortical activity during acute aerobic exercise in young adults. In a crossover study design, 27 young adults (mean age = 22.7 ± 3.4 years, 15 women) participated in two experimental conditions in a randomized order: (1) sitting condition (without exercise) and (2) cycling condition (moderate-intensity exercise). Working memory was measured with a modified version of the n-back task. A functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) was used to measure cortex activation. In the cycling condition, response time (RT) for the n-back task was significantly faster (p < 0.05). No differences in accuracy were observed between the sitting and cycling conditions. The fNIRS results showed that the oxygenated hemoglobin (oxy-Hb) concentrations in the bilateral frontopolar area (p < 0.05), dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (p < 0.05), and right premotor and supplementary cortex (p < 0.05) were decreased while cycling. The findings indicated that the concurrent performance of working memory was improved during acute aerobic exercise, whereas cortical activity was decreased in some brain regions.

Intensity-dependent acute aerobic exercise: Effect on reactive control of attentional functions in acclimatized lowlanders at high altitude

Human attentional function is sensitive to hypoxia. However, little is known about whether and how attentional function is altered after acute aerobic exercise at high altitude, especially for acclimatized lowlanders. In this study, we used the Attention Network Test (ANT) to measure alerting, orienting, and executive control functions and the Stroop Color and Word Test (SCWT) with a different proportion of incongruent trials to investigate proactive and reactive control of executive function. We randomly divided the sample of 160 Tibetan lowlanders who had lived in the highlands for more than two years into four groups. Each of three groups performed 20 min of low-, moderate-, or high-intensity acute aerobic exercise, separately, and a control group watched a 20-min documentary. The ANT and SCWT were conducted before and after exercise or watching the documentary. The results indicated that the executive control effects of the three experimental groups significantly decreased and, in the posttest, the executive control effects of the high-intensity group were lower than those of the low-intensity group. Furthermore, the accuracy of the moderate- and high-intensity groups was increased significantly in the blocks containing 25% incongruent trials of SCWT task. These results suggest that the acute aerobic exercise at high altitude will improve the reactive control of attentional functions in acclimatized lowlanders, and the intensity may play an important role in the exercise-cognition interaction at high altitude.

A Review of Cognitive Changes During Acute Aerobic Exercise

A growing body of work has investigated the effects of acute, or single bouts of, aerobic exercise on cognitive function. However, review of this research has largely focused on changes following exercise, with less focus on cognitive changes during exercise. The purpose of this review is to discuss the critical characteristics of this literature to date, including: (1) what has been done, (2) what has been found, and (3) what is next. Furthermore, previous meta-analytic reviews have demonstrated there is a small positive effect on cognition when measured during exercise, with executive functions showing the largest effects. However, these reviews group executive functions together. Here we explore how inhibition, working memory and cognitive flexibility are individually impacted by factors such as exercise intensity or duration. Searches of electronic databases and reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 73 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Studies were grouped by executive and non-executive cognitive domains, intensity and duration of exercise bouts. Within the executive domain, we found that effects on working memory and cognitive flexibility remain mixed, effects on inhibition are clearer. Moderate intensity exercise improves response time, vigorous intensity impairs accuracy. Moderate to vigorous intensity improves response time across non-executive domains of attention, motor speed and information processing, with no significant effects on accuracy. Memory processes are consistently improved during exercise. Effects of exercise duration on response time and accuracy are nuanced and vary by cognitive domain. Studies typically explore durations of 45 min or less, extended exercise durations remain largely unexplored. We highlight factors to consider when assessing exercise-cognition relationships, as well as current gaps and future directions for work in this field.

Evaluation of the transient hypofrontality theory in the context of exercise: A systematic review with meta-analysis

Accumulating research suggests that, as a result of reduced neural activity in the prefrontal cortex (PFC), higher-order cognitive function may be compromised while engaging in high-intensity acute exercise, with this phenomenon referred to as the transient hypofrontality effect. However, findings in this field remain unclear and lack a thorough synthesis of the evidence. Therefore, the purpose of this meta-analysis was to evaluate the effects of in-task acute exercise on cognitive function, and further, to examine whether this effect is moderated by the specific type of cognition (i.e., PFC-dependent vs. non-PFC-dependent). Studies were identified by electronic databases in accordance with the PRISMA guidelines. In total, 22 studies met our inclusion criteria and intercept only meta-regression models with robust variance estimation were used to calculate the weighted average effect sizes across studies. Acute exercise at all intensities did not influence cognitive function (β = -0.16, 95% CI = [-0.58, 0.27], p = .45) when exercise occurred during the cognitive task, and no significant moderation effects emerged. However, there was evidence that cognitive task type (PFC-dependent vs. non-PFC-dependent) moderated the effect of high-intensity acute exercise on a concomitant cognitive performance (β = -0.81, 95% CI = [-1.60, -0.02], p = .04). Specifically, our findings suggest that PFC-dependent cognition is impaired while engaging in an acute bout of high-intensity exercise, providing support for the transient hypofrontality theory. We discuss these findings in the context of reticular-activating and cognitive-energetic perspectives.

High intensity aerobic exercise improves information processing and motor performance in individuals with Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) adversely affects information processing and motor performance. The impact of aerobic exercise on modifying the deleterious effects of PD underlying information and motor control processes is not well established. The primary aim of this project was to determine the effects of an 8-week high intensity exercise intervention on information processing and movement execution in individuals with PD. A secondary aim sought to understand the effects of antiparkinsonian medication relative to exercise on motor control processes. Data were collected at baseline (on- and off-medication) and upon completion of the exercise intervention (off-medication). Information processing and motor execution were evaluated via simple and choice reaction time paradigms (SRT and CRT) performed on a mobile device. Neither exercise nor medication impacted information processing or movement execution under the SRT paradigm. However, under CRT, exercise improved movement execution and information processing: total time was significantly reduced from 814 to 747 ms (p < 0.001), reaction time improved from 543 to 502 ms (p < 0.001), movement time improved from 270 to 246 ms (p = 0.01), and movement velocity improved from 28 cm/sec to 30 cm/sec (p = 0.01). Improvements in total time and reaction time in the CRT paradigm persisted 4 and 8 weeks following exercise cessation. Antiparkinsonian medication improved motor execution, but not information processing. The improvement in information processing following aerobic exercise, but not levodopa administration, suggests high intensity exercise may be enhancing neural processing and non-motor pathways outside those impacted by medication. The persistence of symptom improvement despite exercise intervention cessation indicates exercise is a candidate for disease modification. Trial registration: The trial was first registered at ClinicalTrials.gov on 7/10/2012 under registration number NCT01636297.

Intensity-Dependent Effects of Acute Exercise on Executive Function

Numerous studies suggest beneficial effects of aerobic exercise at moderate intensity on cognition, while the effects of high-intensity exercise are less clear. This study investigated the acute effects of exercise at moderate and high intensities on executive functions in healthy adults, including functional MRI to examine the underlying neural mechanisms. Furthermore, the association between exercise effects and cardiorespiratory fitness was examined. 64 participants performed in two executive function tasks (flanker and Go/No-go tasks), while functional MR images were collected, following two conditions: in the exercise condition, they cycled on an ergometer at either moderate or high intensity (each n = 32); in the control condition, they watched a movie. Differences in behavioral performance and brain activation between the two conditions were compared between groups. Further, correlations between cardiorespiratory fitness and exercise effects on neural and behavioral correlates of executive performance were calculated. Moderate exercise compared to high-intensity exercise was associated with a tendency towards improved behavioral performance (sensitivity index d') in the Go/No-go task and increased brain activation during hit trials in areas related to executive function, attention, and motor processes (insula, superior frontal gyrus, precentral gyrus, and supplementary motor area). Exercise at high intensity was associated with decreased brain activation in those areas and no changes in behavioral performance. Exercise had no effect on brain activation in the flanker task, but an explorative analysis revealed that reaction times improved after high-intensity exercise. Higher cardiorespiratory fitness was correlated with increased brain activation after moderate exercise and decreased brain activation after high-intensity exercise. These data show that exercise at moderate vs. high intensity has different effects on executive task performance and related brain activation changes as measured by fMRI and that cardiorespiratory fitness might be a moderating factor of acute exercise effects. Thus, our results may contribute to further clarify the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of exercise on cognition.

The Positive Effect of Moderate-Intensity Exercise on the Mirror Neuron System: An fNIRS Study

A growing number of studies have reported the beneficial effect of exercise on human social behavior. The mirror neuron system (MNS) plays a critical role in a variety of social behaviors from imitation to empathy. However, neuroimaging investigations into the effects of exercise on the MNS remain unexplored. To address this question, our study determined the effect of moderate-intensity exercise on the MNS using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Specifically, 23 right-handed young individuals were asked to perform a table-setting task that included action execution and action observation before and after a 25-min exercise session on a cycle ergometer at moderate intensity (65% VO_2peak). The control condition was the same task performed without exercise. Cortical hemodynamic changes in the four primary brain regions of the MNS were monitored with fNIRS, using a modified probe configuration that covered all four MNS regions in the left hemisphere. We used a region of interest (ROI)-based group analysis to determine which regions were activated during action execution and action observation. Following a session of moderate-intensity exercise, we found a significant increase in activation in all four MNS regions, namely the inferior frontal gyrus (IFG), premotor cortex (PMC), superior parietal lobule (SPL), and rostral inferior parietal lobule (IPL). This result indicated a positive effect of exercise on the MNS, specifically that moderate-intensity exercise could activate the MNS.

Acute Effects of Aerobic Exercise on Executive Function and Attention in Adult Patients With ADHD

Aerobic exercise can improve cognitive functions in healthy individuals and in various clinical groups, which might be particularly relevant for patients with ADHD. This study investigated the effects of a single bout of aerobic exercise on attention and executive functions in adult patients with ADHD, including functional MRI to examine the underlying neural mechanisms. On two different days, 23 adult patients with ADHD and 23 matched healthy controls performed in a flanker task, while functional MR images were collected, following 30 min of continuous stationary cycling with moderate intensity as well as after a control condition (watching a movie). Behavioral performance and brain activation were tested for differences between groups and conditions and for interactions to investigate whether exercise improves executive function to a greater extent in patients compared to healthy controls. Exercise significantly improved reaction times in congruent and incongruent trials of the flanker task in patients with ADHD but not in healthy controls. We found no changes in brain activation between the two conditions for either group. However, a subgroup analysis of ADHD patients with a higher degree of cardiorespiratory fitness revealed decreased activation in premotor areas during congruent trials and in premotor and medial frontal cortex during incongruent trials in the exercise compared to the control condition. Our results indicate exercise-induced improvements in attention and processing speed in patients with ADHD, demonstrating that adult patients with ADHD may benefit from an acute bout of exercise. These findings could be of high relevance for developing alternative treatment approaches for ADHD. In addition, results of the current study contribute to elucidate the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of exercise on cognition and to better understand the role of cardiorespiratory fitness on these effects.

Impact of Physical and Cognitive Exertion on Cognitive Control

In a recent study, the differential effects of prolonged physiologically challenging exercise upon two executive processes (cognitive control and working memory) were investigated. However, the impact of exercise on the selective inhibition task employed was debatable and needed further analysis to dissociate the effects induced by exercise intensity from those induced by the time spent on task upon cognitive control outcomes. In this study, we propose a thorough analysis of these data, using a generalized mixed model on a trial-by-trial basis and a new measure of the strength of the automatic response based on reaction time distribution, to disentangle the effect of physical fatigue from cognitive fatigue. Despite the prolonged duration of exercise, no decline in cognitive performance was found in response to physical fatigue. The only change observed during 60-min exercise was an acceleration of the correct trials and an increase of errors for incompatible trials. This pattern, shown during low and physiologically challenging exercise, supports the occurrence of cognitive fatigue induced by the repetition of the cognitive tasks over time.

Barefoot running does not affect simple reaction time: an exploratory study

Background

Converging evidence comparing barefoot (BF) and shod (SH) running highlights differences in foot-strike patterns and somatosensory feedback, among others. Anecdotal evidence from SH runners attempting BF running suggests a greater attentional demand may be experienced during BF running. However, little work to date has examined whether there is an attentional cost of BF versus SH running.

Objective

This exploratory study aimed to examine whether an acute bout of BF running would impact simple reaction time (SRT) compared to SH running, in a sample of runners naïve to BF running.

Methods

Eight male distance runners completed SRT testing during 10 min of BF or SH treadmill running at 70% maximal aerobic speed (17.9 ± 1.4 km h⁻¹). To test SRT, participants were required to press a hand-held button in response to the flash of a light bulb placed in the center of their visual field. SRT was tested at 1-minute intervals during running. BF and SH conditions were completed in a pseudo-randomized and counterbalanced crossover fashion. SRT was defined as the time elapsed between the light bulb flash and the button press. SRT errors were also recorded and were defined as the number of trials in which a button press was not recorded in response to the light bulb flash.

Results

Overall, SRT later in the exercise bouts showed a statistically significant increase compared to earlier (p < 0.05). Statistically significant increases in SRT were present at 7 min versus 5 min (0.29 ± 0.02 s vs. 0.27 ± 0.02 s, p < 0.05) and at 9 min versus 2 min (0.29 ± 0.03 s vs. 0.27 ± 0.03 s, p < 0.05). However, BF running did not influence this increase in SRT (p > 0.05) or the number of SRT errors (17.6 ± 6.6 trials vs. 17.0 ± 13.0 trials, p > 0.05).

Discussion

In a sample of distance runners naïve to BF running, there was no statistically significant difference in SRT or SRT errors during acute bouts of BF and SH running. We interpret these results to mean that BF running does not have a greater attentional cost compared to SH running during a SRT task throughout treadmill running. Literature suggests that stride-to-stride gait modulation during running may occur predominately via mechanisms that preclude conscious perception, thus potentially attenuating effects of increased somatosensory feedback experienced during BF running. Future research should explore the present experimental paradigm in a larger sample using over-ground running trials, as well as employing different tests of attention.

Time-Dependent Effects of Acute Exercise on University Students' Cognitive Performance in Temperate and Cold Environments

Background: Few studies have examined the acute exercise-induced changes in cognitive performance in different thermal environments and the time course effects.

Objective: Investigate the time-dependent effects of acute exercise on university students’ processing speed, working memory and cognitive flexibility in temperate and cold environments.

Method: Twenty male university students (age 23.5 ± 2.0 years) with moderate physical activity level participated in a repeated-measures within-subjects design. Processing speed, working memory and cognitive flexibility were assessed using CogState test battery at baseline (BASE), followed by a 45-min rest (REST), immediately after (EX) and 30 min after (POST-EX) 30-min moderate-intensity treadmill running in both temperate (TEMP; 25°C) and cold (COLD; 10°C) environments. Mean skin temperature (MST) and thermal sensation (TS) were also recorded. Two-way repeated measures ANOVA was performed to analyze each variable. Spearman’s rho was used to identify the correlations between MST, TS and cognitive performance.

Results: Reaction time (RT) of processing speed and working memory decreased immediately after exercise in both conditions (processing speed: p = 0.003; working memory: p = 0.007). The facilitating effects on processing speed disappeared within 30 min after exercise in TEMP (p = 0.163) and COLD (p = 0.667), while improvements on working memory remained 30 min after exercise in TEMP (p = 0.047), but not in COLD (p = 0.663). Though RT of cognitive flexibility reduced in both conditions (p = 0.003), no significance was found between EX and REST (p = 0.135). Increased MST and TS were significantly associated with reductions in processing speed RT (MST: r = -0.341, p < 0.001; TS: r = -0.262, p = 0.001) and working memory RT (MST: r = -0.282, p < 0.001; TS: r = -0.2229, p = 0.005), and improvements in working memory accuracy (MST: r = 0.249, p = 0.002; TS: r = 0.255, p = 0.001).

Conclusion: The results demonstrate different time-dependent effects of acute exercise on cognition in TEMP and COLD. Our study reveals facilitating effects of exercise on university students’ processing speed and working memory in both environments. However, in contrast to TEMP, effects on working memory in COLD are transient.

Cognitive Performance Enhancement Induced by Caffeine, Carbohydrate and Guarana Mouth Rinsing during Submaximal Exercise

The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of serial mouth rinsing (MR) with nutritional supplements on cognitive performance (i.e., cognitive control and time perception) during a 40-min submaximal exercise. Twenty-four participants completed 4 counterbalanced experimental sessions, during which they performed MR with either placebo (PL), carbohydrate (CHO: 1.6 g/25 mL), guarana complex (GUAc: 0.4 g/25 mL) or caffeine (CAF: 67 mg/25 mL) before and twice during exercise. The present study provided some important new insights regarding the specific changes in cognitive performance induced by nutritional supplements. The main results were: (1) CHO, CAF and GUA MR likely led participants to improve temporal performance; (2) CAF MR likely improved cognitive control; and (3) CHO MR led to a likely decrease in subjective perception of effort at the end of the exercise compared to PL, GUA and CAF. Moreover, results have shown that performing 40-min submaximal exercise enhances information processing in terms of both speed and accuracy, improves temporal performance and does not alter cognitive control. The present study opens up new perspectives regarding the use of MR to optimize cognitive performance during physical exercise.

Moderate anxiety modifies the electromyographic activity of a forearm muscle during a time-reaction task in women

Arousal anxiety has a great impact on reaction time, physiological parameters and motor performance. Numerous studies have focused on the influence of anxiety on muscular activity during simple non ecologic task. We investigate the impact of a moderate state-anxiety (arousal stressor) on the specific component of a complex multi-joint ecologic movement during a reaction time task of auditory stimulus-response. Our objective is to know if central and peripheral voluntary motor processes were modulated in the same way by an arousal stressor. Eighteen women volunteers performed simple reaction time tasks of auditory stimulus-response. Video-recorded Stroop test with interferences was used to induced moderate state-anxiety. Electromyographic activity of the wrist extensor was recorded in order to analyse the two components of the reaction time: the premotor and motor time. In anxiogenic condition, an acceleration and an increase of muscular activity of the reaction time was obtained. This increase was due to a stronger muscle activity during the premotor time in the anxiogenic condition. Arousal anxiety has a different impact on central and peripheral voluntary motor processes. The modifications observed could be related to an increase in arousal related to a higher anxiety in order to prepare the body to act.

Cognitive functions and cerebral oxygenation changes during acute and prolonged hypoxic exposure

The present study aimed to assess specific cognitive processes (cognitive control and time perception) and hemodynamic correlates using functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) during acute and prolonged high-altitude exposure. Eleven male subjects were transported via helicopter and dropped at 14 272 ft (4 350 meters) of altitude where they stayed for 4 days. Cognitive tasks, involving a conflict task and temporal bisection task, were performed at sea level the week before ascending to high altitude, the day of arrival (D0), the second (D2) and fourth (D4) day at high altitude. Cortical hemodynamic changes in the prefrontal cortex (PFC) area were monitored with fNIRS at rest and during the conflict task. Results showed that high altitude impacts information processing in terms of speed and accuracy. In the early hours of exposure (D0), participants displayed slower reaction times (RT) and decision errors were twice as high. While error rate for simple spontaneous responses remained twice that at sea level, the slow-down of RT was not detectable after 2 days at high-altitude. The larger fNIRS responses from D0 to D2 suggest that higher prefrontal activity partially counteracted cognitive performance decrements. Cognitive control, assessed through the build-up of a top-down response suppression mechanism, the early automatic response activation and the post-error adjustment were not impacted by hypoxia. However, during prolonged hypoxic exposure the temporal judgments were underestimated suggesting a slowdown of the internal clock. A decrease in cortical arousal level induced by hypoxia could consistently explain both the slowdown of the internal clock and the persistence of a higher number of errors after several days of exposure.

Effects of domain-specific exercise load on speed and accuracy of a domain-specific perceptual-cognitive task

In the context of perceptual-cognitive expertise it is important to know whether physiological loads influence perceptual-cognitive performance. This study examined whether a handball specific physical exercise load influenced participants' speed and accuracy in a flicker task. At rest and during a specific interval exercise of 86.5-90% HRmax, 35 participants (experts: n=8, advanced: n=13, novices, n=14) performed a handball specific flicker task with two types of patterns (structured and unstructured). For reaction time, results revealed moderate effect sizes for group, with experts reacting faster than advanced and advanced reacting faster than novices, and for structure, with structured videos being performed faster than unstructured ones. A significant interaction for structure×group was also found, with experts and advanced players faster for structured videos, and novices faster for unstructured videos. For accuracy, significant main effects were found for structure with structured videos solved more accurately. A significant interaction for structure×group was revealed, with experts and advanced more accurate for structured scenes and novices more accurate for unstructured scenes. A significant interaction was also found for condition×structure; at rest, unstructured and structured scenes were performed with the same accuracy while under physical exercise, structured scenes were solved more accurately. No other interactions were found. These results were somewhat surprising given previous work in this area, although the impact of a specific physical exercise on a specific perceptual-cognitive task may be different from those tested generally.

Slowed response to peripheral visual stimuli during strenuous exercise

Recently, we proposed that strenuous exercise impairs peripheral visual perception because visual responses to peripheral visual stimuli were slowed during strenuous exercise. However, this proposal was challenged because strenuous exercise is also likely to affect the brain network underlying motor responses. The purpose of the current study was to resolve this issue. Fourteen participants performed a visual reaction-time (RT) task at rest and while exercising at 50% (moderate) and 75% (strenuous) peak oxygen uptake. Visual stimuli were randomly presented at different distances from fixation in two task conditions: the Central condition (2° or 5° from fixation) and the Peripheral condition (30° or 50° from fixation). We defined premotor time as the time between stimulus onset and the motor response, as determined using electromyographic recordings. In the Central condition, premotor time did not change during moderate (167±19ms) and strenuous (168±24ms) exercise from that at rest (164±17ms). In the Peripheral condition, premotor time significantly increased during moderate (181±18ms, P<0.05) and strenuous exercise (189±23ms, P<0.001) from that at rest (173±17ms). These results suggest that increases in Premotor Time to the peripheral visual stimuli did not result from an impaired motor-response network, but rather from impaired peripheral visual perception. We conclude that slowed response to peripheral visual stimuli during strenuous exercise primarily results from impaired visual perception of the periphery.

Multiple stages of information processing are modulated during acute bouts of exercise

Acute bouts of aerobic physical exercise can modulate subsequent cognitive task performance and oscillatory brain activity measured with electroencephalography (EEG). Here, we investigated the sequencing of these modulations of perceptual and cognitive processes using scalp recorded EEG acquired during exercise. Twelve participants viewed pseudo-random sequences of frequent non-target stimuli (cars), infrequent distractors (obliquely oriented faces) and infrequent targets that required a simple detection response (obliquely oriented faces, where the angle was different than the infrequent distractors). The sequences were presented while seated on a stationary bike under three conditions during which scalp recorded EEG was also acquired: rest, low-intensity exercise, and high-intensity exercise. Behavioral target detection was faster during high-intensity exercise compared to both rest and low-intensity exercise. An event-related potential (ERP) analysis of the EEG data revealed that the mean amplitude of the visual P1 component evoked by frequent non-targets measured at parietal-occipital electrodes was larger during low-intensity exercise compared to rest. The P1 component evoked by infrequent targets also peaked earlier during low-intensity exercise compared to rest and high-intensity exercise. The P3a ERP component evoked by infrequent distractors measured at parietal electrodes peaked significantly earlier during both low- and high-intensity exercise when compared to rest. The modulation of the visual P1 and the later P3a components is consistent with the conclusion that exercise modulates multiple stages of neural information processing, ranging from early stage sensory processing (P1) to post-perceptual target categorization (P3a).

Effects of physical exercise on individual resting state EEG alpha peak frequency

Previous research has shown that both acute and chronic physical exercises can induce positive effects on brain function and this is associated with improvements in cognitive performance. However, the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of exercise on cognitive processing are not well understood. This study examined the effects of an acute bout of physical exercise as well as four weeks of exercise training on the individual resting state electroencephalographic (EEG) alpha peak frequency (iAPF), a neurophysiological marker of the individual's state of arousal and attention, in healthy young adults. The subjects completed a steady state exercise (SSE) protocol or an exhaustive exercise (EE) protocol, respectively, on two separate days. EEG activity was recorded for 2 min before exercise, immediately after exercise, and after 10 min of rest. All assessments were repeated following four weeks of exercise training to investigate whether an improvement in physical fitness modulates the resting state iAPF and/or the iAPF response to an acute bout of SSE and EE. The iAPF was significantly increased following EE (P = 0.012) but not following SSE. It is concluded that the iAPF is increased following intense exercise, indicating a higher level of arousal and preparedness for external input.

Does acute exercise affect the performance of whole-body, psychomotor skills in an inverted-U fashion? A meta-analytic investigation

The primary purpose of this study was to examine, using meta-analytical measures, whether research into the performance of whole-body, psychomotor tasks following moderate and heavy exercise demonstrates an inverted-U effect. A secondary purpose was to compare the effects of acute exercise on tasks requiring static maintenance of posture versus dynamic, ballistic skills. Moderate intensity exercise was determined as being between 40% and 79% maximum power output (ẆMAX) or equivalent, while ≥80% ẆMAX was considered to be heavy. There was a significant difference (Zdiff=4.29, p=0.001, R(2)=0.42) between the mean effect size for moderate intensity exercise (g=0.15) and that for heavy exercise size (g=-0.86). These data suggest a catastrophe effect during heavy exercise. Mean effect size for static tasks (g=-1.24) was significantly different (Zdiff=3.24, p=0.001, R(2)=0.90) to those for dynamic/ballistic tasks (g=-0.30). The result for the static versus dynamic tasks moderating variables point to perception being more of an issue than peripheral fatigue for maintenance of static posture. The difference between this result and those found in meta-analyses examining the effects of acute exercise on cognition shows that, when perception and action are combined, the complexity of the interaction induces different effects to when cognition is detached from motor performance.

Acute exercise and aerobic fitness influence selective attention during visual search

Successful goal directed behavior relies on a human attention system that is flexible and able to adapt to different conditions of physiological stress. However, the effects of physical activity on multiple aspects of selective attention and whether these effects are mediated by aerobic capacity, remains unclear. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of a prolonged bout of physical activity on visual search performance and perceptual distraction. Two groups of participants completed a hybrid visual search flanker/response competition task in an initial baseline session and then at 17-min intervals over a 2 h 16 min test period. Participants assigned to the exercise group engaged in steady-state aerobic exercise between completing blocks of the visual task, whereas participants assigned to the control group rested in between blocks. The key result was a correlation between individual differences in aerobic capacity and visual search performance, such that those individuals that were more fit performed the search task more quickly. Critically, this relationship only emerged in the exercise group after the physical activity had begun. The relationship was not present in either group at baseline and never emerged in the control group during the test period, suggesting that under these task demands, aerobic capacity may be an important determinant of visual search performance under physical stress. The results enhance current understanding about the relationship between exercise and cognition, and also inform current models of selective attention.

The effect of a single session of whole-body vibration training in recreationally active men on the excitability of the central and peripheral nervous system

Vibration training has become a popular method used in professional sports and recreation. In this study, we examined the effect of whole-body vibration training on the central nervous system and muscle excitability in a group of 28 active men. Subjects were assigned randomly to one of two experimental groups with different variables of vibrations. The chronaximetry method was used to evaluate the effect of a single session of whole-body vibration training on the excitability of the rectus femoris and brachioradialis muscles. The examination of the fusing and flickering frequencies of the light stimulus was performed. An increase in the excitability of the quadriceps femoris muscle due to low intensity vibrations (20 Hz frequency, 2 mm amplitude) was noted, and a return to the initial values was observed 30 min after the application of vibration. High intensity vibrations (60 Hz frequency, 4 mm amplitude) caused elongations of the chronaxy time; however, these differences were not statistically significant. Neither a low intensity vibration amplitude of 2 mm (frequency of 20 Hz) nor a high intensity vibration amplitude of 4 mm (frequency of 60 Hz) caused a change in the excitability of the central nervous system, as revealed by the average frequency of the fusing and flickering of the light stimulus. A single session of high intensity whole-body vibration did not significantly decrease the excitability of the peripheral nervous system while the central nervous system did not seem to be affected.

Reduced Tic Symptomatology in Tourette Syndrome After an Acute Bout of Exercise: An Observational Study

In light of descriptive accounts of attenuating effects of physical activity on tics, we used an experimental design to assess the impact of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on tic expression in young people (N = 18) with Tourette Syndrome (TS). We compared video-based tic frequency estimates obtained during an exercise session with tic rates obtained during pre-exercise (baseline) and post-exercise interview-based sessions. Results showed significantly reduced tic rates during the exercise session compared with baseline, suggesting that acute exercise has an attenuating effect on tics. Tic rates also remained reduced relative to baseline during the post-exercise session, likely reflecting a sustained effect of exercise on tic reduction. Parallel to the observed tic attenuation, exercise also had a beneficial impact on self-reported anxiety and mood levels. The present findings provide novel empirical evidence for the beneficial effect of exercise on TS symptomatology bearing important research and clinical implications.

Does the inverted-U function disappear in expert athletes? An analysis of the attentional behavior under physical exercise of athletes and non-athletes

A number of studies document that physical exercise influences cognitive performance in a variety of ways. Some of these studies present the relationship between the workload of exercise and the activation level of the central nervous system as an inverted-U relationship. Among the factors that could be responsible for diverging results are the participants' individual fitness level and the athletic status. While athletes and non-athletes do not differ in general cognitive skills, athletes are better able to maintain these during physical exercise especially under high exercise intensities. Hence, we hypothesized that the inverted-U function applies for non-athletes but disappears in team sports experts. We compared athletes' and non-athletes' cognitive performance on a measure of attentional behavior under three different physical exercise intensities. Results showed an increase of non-athletes' attentional breadth right up to a certain level of maximal aerobic power before decreasing, as expected according to an inverted-U curve. In contrast, athletes' attentional breadth continued to increase with higher physical exercise intensities. We concluded that physical exercise influences participants' attentional behavior and that individual fitness acts as a moderator of this relationship.

Influence of reward on corticospinal excitability during movement preparation

Current models of decision making postulate that action selection entails a competition within motor-related areas. According to this view, during action selection, motor activity should integrate cognitive information (e.g., reward) that drives our decisions. We tested this hypothesis in humans by measuring motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) in a left finger muscle during motor preparation in a hand selection task, in which subjects performed left or right key presses according to an imperative signal. This signal was either obvious or ambiguous, but subjects were always asked to react as fast as possible. When the signal was really indistinct, any key press was regarded as correct, so subjects could respond "at random" in those trials. A score based on reaction times was provided after each correct response, and subjects were told they would receive a monetary reward proportional to their final score. Importantly, the scores were either equitable for both hands or favored implicitly left responses (reward(neutral) and reward(biased) blocks, respectively). We found that subjects selected their left hand more often in the reward(biased) than in the reward(neutral) condition, particularly after ambiguous signals. Moreover, left MEPs were larger, as soon as the signal appeared, in the reward(biased) than in the reward(neutral) conditions. During the course of motor preparation, this effect became strongest following ambiguous signals, a condition in which subjects' choices relied strongly on the reward. These results indicate that motor activity is shaped by a cognitive variable that drives our choices, possibly in the context of a competition taking place within motor-related areas.

Moderate movement, more vision: effects of physical exercise on inattentional blindness

Research on inattentional blindness shows that individuals fail to notice unexpected objects or events when attention is focused elsewhere. The majority of previous studies on inattentional blindness have been performed at rest, even though there are several real-life situations that require both physical exercise and focus of attention to accomplish a particular task. A number of different studies have demonstrated that physical exercise influences cognitive performance and attention processes in a variety of ways. Relatively little is known about the effects of physical load on inattentional blindness. The present study was the first attempt to investigate inattentional blindness effects as a function of physical load. Participants were randomly assigned to three groups where they performed two different inattentional blindness tasks: at rest (group 1) and on a bicycle ergometer under moderate (group 2) or high (group 3) physical exercise. The results showed a decrease of inattentional blindness effects from the resting to the moderate exercise condition, and then an increase for the high physical exercise condition, representing an inverted-U plot. Findings support the notion that physical exercise influences individuals' attention performance. We concluded that moderate physical exercise has a positive impact on inattentional blindness, given that people under moderate physical exercise more frequently notice an unexpected object when attention is diverted to another task, and that this evidence should be taken into account when considering certain real-life events.

Promoting motor function by exercising the brain

Exercise represents a behavioral intervention that enhances brain health and motor function. The increase in cerebral blood volume in response to physical activity may be responsible for improving brain function. Among the various neuroimaging techniques used to monitor brain hemodynamic response during exercise, functional near-infrared spectroscopy could facilitate the measurement of task-related cortical responses noninvasively and is relatively robust with regard to the subjects’ motion. Although the components of optimal exercise interventions have not been determined, evidence from animal and human studies suggests that aerobic exercise with sufficiently high intensity has neuroprotective properties and promotes motor function. This review provides an insight into the effect of physical activity (based on endurance and resistance exercises) on brain function for producing movement. Since most progress in the study of brain function has come from patients with neurological disorders (e.g., stroke and Parkinson’s patients), this review presents some findings emphasizing training paradigms for restoring motor function.

Are Motor-free Visual Perception Skill Constructs Predictive of Visual-motor Integration Skill Constructs?

Background

Theoretical perspectives vary in considering whether visual perceptual skills and visual-motor integration (VMI) skills are related, interdependent skill sets, or two discrete skill constructs.

Objective

This study investigated whether motor-reduced/free visual perceptual skill constructs were predictive of motor-enhanced VMI skill constructs.

Method

A total of 45 typically developing children aged 6–12 years completed the Developmental Test of Visual Perception-Second Edition (DTVP-2) and the Test of Visual Perceptual Skills-Third Edition (TVPS-3). Four multiple linear regression analyses were completed with the four DTVP-2 motor-enhanced VMI subscales being the dependent (criterion) variables and the seven TVPS-3 motor-reduced subscales being the independent variables.

Results

The total variance accounted for in the four DTVP-2 VMI skill constructs by all the seven TVPS-3 skill constructs ranged from 29.3% to 60.10%. In the first regression analysis, the TVPS-3 Visual Sequential Memory and TVPS-3 Visual FigureGround constructs explained 5.40% and 4.90%, respectively, of the variance in the DTVP-2 Eye Hand Coordination construct. In the second regression, the TVPS-3 Visual Sequential Memory and TVPS-3 Visual Figure–Ground constructs accounted for 5.60% and 3.10%, respectively, of the DTVP-2 Copying construct's variance. The third analysis revealed that the TVPS-3 Visual Memory and TVPS-3 Visual Form Constancy constructs represented 6.20% and 7.90%, respectively, of the DTVP-2 Spatial Relations construct's variance. In the fourth and final regression analysis, the TVPS-3 Visual Sequential Memory and TVPS-3 Visual Figure–Ground construct explained 14.60% and 4.90%, respectively, of the variance in the DTVP-2 Visual-Motor Speed construct.

Conclusion

In the four regression analyses, specific types of motor-reduced visual perception constructs were predictive of the four specific types of motor-enhanced VMI constructs. Visual Sequential Memory and Visual FigureGround, specific types of motor-reduced visual perceptual constructs, were frequent and significant predictors of VMI skill constructs in children. It would appear that motor-reduced visual perceptual skills and motor-enhanced VMI skills as theoretical constructs are related and dependent on one another.

The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: a meta-analysis

There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used.

The Effects of Acute Exercise on Temporal Generalization

Sixteen healthy college students performed a multiple-trial referenced temporal generalization task and an episodic temporal generalization task before and during moderate-intensity aerobic exercise. The same tasks were performed in a resting control condition. Working memory tasks were also administered before, during, and after exercise to determine whether exercise affected working memory processes. Temporal generalization gradients demonstrated leftward shifts during exercise when compared to rest, indicating that the subject perceived intervals to elapse more slowly. This finding is consistent with an increased pacemaker speed. Subjective lengthening of stimuli as the task progressed did not occur during exercise or rest. No significant differences were observed on the episodic timing task, nor were any differences found on the working memory tasks. These findings provide support for the notion that exercise influences the internal clock in a manner similar to other arousal-inducing manipulations.

Effects of acute exercise on long-term memory

In this study, we tested the effect of acute exercise on long-term memory, specifically the timing of exercise relative to the memory challenge. We assessed memory via paragraph recall, in which participants listened to two paragraphs (exposure) and recounted them following a 35-min delay. Participants (n = 48) were randomly assigned to one of three groups: exercise prior to exposure, exercise after exposure, or no-exercise. Exercise consisted of 30 min on a cycle ergometer including 20 min at moderate intensity. Only the exercise prior group recalled significantly more than the control group (p < .05). Differences among the exercise groups failed to reach significance (p = .09). Results indicated that acute exercise positively influenced recall and that exercise timing relative to memory task may have an impact on this effect.

The reticular-activating hypofrontality (RAH) model of acute exercise

We present here a comprehensive, neurocognitive model to account for the psychological consequences of acute exercise. There is a substantial amount of disparate research and the proposed mechanistic explanation meaningfully integrates this body of brain and behavioral data into a single, unified model. The model's central feature is a cascading, two-step process. First, exercise engages arousal mechanisms in the reticular-activating system. This activation process, which involves a number of neurotransmitter systems, has several interrelated effects on cognition and emotion but, in general, has evolved to facilitate implicit information processing. Second, exercise disengages the higher-order functions of the prefrontal cortex. This deactivation process, which is caused in part by resource limitations, also has several interrelated effects but, in general, has evolved to keep the inefficient explicit system and unhelpful emotional processes from compromising the implicit system's functioning when optimal motor execution is needed most. In this article, we review evidence in support of this reticular-activating hypofrontality (RAH) model of acute exercise and place it into a larger evolutionary context.

Does cerebral oxygenation affect cognitive function during exercise?

This study tested whether cerebral oxygenation affects cognitive function during exercise. We measured reaction times (RT) of 12 participants while they performed a modified version of the Eriksen flanker task, at rest and while cycling. In the exercise condition, participants performed the cognitive task at rest and while cycling at three workloads [40, 60, and 80% of peak oxygen uptake ([Formula: see text])]. In the control condition, the workload was fixed at 20 W. RT was divided into premotor and motor components based on surface electromyographic recordings. The premotor component of RT (premotor time) was used to evaluate the effects of acute exercise on cognitive function. Cerebral oxygenation was monitored during the cognitive task over the right frontal cortex using near-infrared spectroscopy. In the exercise condition, we found that premotor time significantly decreased during exercise at 60% peak [Formula: see text] relative to rest. However, this improvement was not observed during exercise at 80% peak [Formula: see text]. In the control condition, premotor time did not change during exercise. Cerebral oxygenation during exercise at 60% peak [Formula: see text] was not significantly different from that at rest, while cerebral oxygenation substantially decreased during exercise at 80% peak [Formula: see text]. The present results suggest that an improvement in cognitive function occurs during moderate exercise, independent of cerebral oxygenation.

Reaction time to peripheral visual stimuli during exercise under hypoxia

The purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that decrease in cerebral oxygenation compromises an individual's ability to respond to peripheral visual stimuli during exercise. We measured the simple reaction time (RT) to peripheral visual stimuli at rest and during and after cycling at three different workloads [40%, 60%, and 80% peak oxygen uptake (VO2)] under either normoxia [inspired fraction of oxygen (FIO2)=0.21] or normobaric hypoxia (FIO2=0.16). Peripheral visual stimuli were presented at 10 degrees to either the right or the left of the midpoint of the eyes. Cerebral oxygenation was monitored during the RT measurement over the right frontal cortex with near-infrared spectroscopy. We used the premotor component of RT (premotor time) to assess effects of exercise on the central process. The premotor time was significantly longer during exercise at 80% peak VO2 (normoxia: 214.2+/-33.0 ms, hypoxia: 221.5+/-30.1 ms) relative to that at rest (normoxia: 201.0+/-27.2 ms, hypoxia: 202.9+/-29.7 ms) (P<0.01). Under normoxia, cerebral oxygenation gradually increased up to 60% peak VO2 and then decreased to the resting level at 80% peak VO2. Under hypoxia, cerebral oxygenation progressively decreased as exercise workload increased. We found a strong correlation between increase in premotor time and decrease in cerebral oxygenation (r2=0.89, P<0.01), suggesting that increase in premotor time during exercise is associated with decrease in cerebral oxygenation. Accordingly, exercise at high altitude may compromise visual perceptual performance.

Acute aerobic exercise and information processing: modulation of executive control in a Random Number Generation task

The immediate and short-term aftereffects of a bout of aerobic exercise on young adults' executive functions were assessed. Sixteen participants performed a Random Number Generation (RNG) task, which measured two aspects of executive function, before, during, and after ergometer cycling exercise. In a separate session, participants completed the same sequence of testing while seated on an ergometer without pedaling. Results suggest that aerobic exercise: (1) selectively influences RNG indices related to the ability to alternate ascending and descending runs throughout the entire exercise bout; (2) induces a shift to a less effortful number generation strategy, particularly during the first few minutes of the exercise; and (3) has no significant influence on RNG performance as soon as the exercise terminates. The strategic adjustments observed during the exercise are interpreted in the framework of Hockey's [Hockey, G. R. J. (1997). Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload: A cognitive-energetical framework. Biological Psychology, 45, 73-93.] compensatory control model and suggest that concurrent effortful processes induced by cycling exercise may draw upon available attention resources and influence executive processing.