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Yao J, Hou R, Fan H, Liu J, Chen Z, Hou J, Cheng Q, Li CT. Prefrontal projections modulate recurrent circuitry in the insular cortex to support short-term memory. Cell Rep 2024; 43:113756. [PMID: 38358886 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2024.113756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/23/2024] [Indexed: 02/17/2024] Open
Abstract
Short-term memory (STM) maintains information during a short delay period. How long-range and local connections interact to support STM encoding remains elusive. Here, we tackle the problem focusing on long-range projections from the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) to the anterior agranular insular cortex (aAIC) in head-fixed mice performing an olfactory delayed-response task. Optogenetic and electrophysiological experiments reveal the behavioral importance of the two regions in encoding STM information. Spike-correlogram analysis reveals strong local and cross-region functional coupling (FC) between memory neurons encoding the same information. Optogenetic suppression of mPFC-aAIC projections during the delay period reduces behavioral performance, the proportion of memory neurons, and memory-specific FC within the aAIC, whereas optogenetic excitation enhances all of them. mPFC-aAIC projections also bidirectionally modulate the efficacy of STM-information transfer, measured by the contribution of FC spiking pairs to the memory-coding ability of following neurons. Thus, prefrontal projections modulate insular neurons' functional connectivity and memory-coding ability to support STM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian Yao
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Ruiqing Hou
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Hongmei Fan
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Jiawei Liu
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Zhaoqin Chen
- Shanghai Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Technology, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Jincan Hou
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Qi Cheng
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai 200031, China
| | - Chengyu T Li
- Institute of Neuroscience, State Key Laboratory of Neuroscience, CAS Center for Excellence in Brain Science and Intelligence Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai 200031, China; Lingang Laboratory, Shanghai 200031, China; Shanghai Center for Brain Science and Brain-Inspired Technology, Shanghai 200031, China.
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2
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Ott T, Stein AM, Nieder A. Dopamine receptor activation regulates reward expectancy signals during cognitive control in primate prefrontal neurons. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7537. [PMID: 37985776 PMCID: PMC10661983 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43271-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Accepted: 11/06/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Dopamine neurons respond to reward-predicting cues but also modulate information processing in the prefrontal cortex essential for cognitive control. Whether dopamine controls reward expectation signals in prefrontal cortex that motivate cognitive control is unknown. We trained two male macaques on a working memory task while varying the reward size earned for successful task completion. We recorded neurons in lateral prefrontal cortex while simultaneously stimulating dopamine D1 receptor (D1R) or D2 receptor (D2R) families using micro-iontophoresis. We show that many neurons predict reward size throughout the trial. D1R stimulation showed mixed effects following reward cues but decreased reward expectancy coding during the memory delay. By contrast, D2R stimulation increased reward expectancy coding in multiple task periods, including cueing and memory periods. Stimulation of either dopamine receptors increased the neurons' selective responses to reward size upon reward delivery. The differential modulation of reward expectancy by dopamine receptors suggests that dopamine regulates reward expectancy necessary for successful cognitive control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Torben Ott
- Animal Physiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
- Bernstein Center for Computational Neuroscience and Institute of Biology, Humboldt-University of Berlin, 10099, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Anna Marlina Stein
- Animal Physiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Andreas Nieder
- Animal Physiology, Institute of Neurobiology, Auf der Morgenstelle 28, University of Tübingen, 72076, Tübingen, Germany.
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Tang H, Sun X, Li BM, Luo F. Neural representation of cost-benefit selections in medial prefrontal cortex of rats. Neurosci Lett 2017; 660:115-121. [PMID: 28923479 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2017.09.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Revised: 08/17/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Decision making refers to the process that subjects use to choose between competing courses of action based on the expected costs and benefits of their consequences. However, few studies have addressed the neuronal mechanisms behind the processes of how costs and benefits influence decision making. Here we investigated the neuronal representation of costs and benefits towards a goal-directed action under a differential reward schedule by training rats to perform a "Do more, get more" (DM-GM) task utilizing a nosepoke operandum, where longer nosepoke durations resulted in correspondingly larger rewards. Our results showed that the cost a rat pays can be expected from the activity of neurons located in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). These findings indicate that mPFC activity is predictive of the subjects' costs and benefits, providing mechanistic insights on this mental calculation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua Tang
- School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China; Center for Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China
| | - Xuan Sun
- School of Life Sciences, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China; Center for Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China
| | - Bao-Ming Li
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China
| | - Fei Luo
- Center for Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Institute of Life Science, Nanchang University, Nanchang, 330031, China.
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Igarashi M, Yamamoto T, Lee J, Song C, Ikei H, Miyazaki Y. Effects of stimulation by three-dimensional natural images on prefrontal cortex and autonomic nerve activity: a comparison with stimulation using two-dimensional images. Cogn Process 2014; 15:551-6. [PMID: 25074565 DOI: 10.1007/s10339-014-0627-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Empirical evidence suggests that three-dimensional (3D) images of nature promote physiological relaxation in humans by providing more realistic effects compared with two-dimensional (2D) images. However, no studies have evaluated the physiological relaxation effects of nature-derived 3D images on prefrontal cortex and autonomic nerve activity. The present study aimed to clarify the physiological relaxation effects of visual stimulation by 3D flower images on prefrontal cortex and autonomic nerve activity. Nineteen male university students (22.2 ± 0.6 years) were presented with 3D and 2D images of the water lily for 90 s. Prefrontal cortex activity was measured using near-infrared spectroscopy, while autonomic nerve activity was measured using heart rate variability (HRV). Psychological effects were determined using a modified semantic differential method (SD). Compared with visual stimulation by 2D images, that by 3D images resulted in a significant decrease in oxyhemoglobin concentration in the right prefrontal cortex, lower sympathetic activity as calculated by the ratio of the low-frequency to high-frequency HRV component, and a significantly greater realistic feeling as evidenced by higher SD ratings. In conclusion, visual stimulation by realistic 3D floral images promotes physiological relaxation more effectively than the corresponding 2D image.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miho Igarashi
- Center for Environment, Health, and Field Sciences, Chiba University, 6-2-1 Kashiwa-no-ha, Kashiwa, Chiba, 277-0882, Japan
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Graziano M. Neuroeconomics. EPISTEMOLOGY OF DECISION 2013:29-61. [DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-5428-7_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
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Chronic alcohol consumption impairs visuo-spatial associative memory in periadolescent rhesus monkeys. Drug Alcohol Depend 2011; 114:31-40. [PMID: 20951512 PMCID: PMC3024459 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2010.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2010] [Revised: 08/20/2010] [Accepted: 09/01/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Alcohol abuse in the adult is often preceded by high alcohol consumption during adolescence. Profound changes in brain structure and function occur during this developmental period, therefore alcohol may impact essential cognitive skill development during the formal educational years. The objective of this study was to determine if chronic oral alcohol intake slows acquisition and performance of cognitive tasks in male adolescent rhesus monkeys. Treatment groups (Alcohol, N=4; Control, N=3) were evaluated on bimanual dexterity and tests of visuo-spatial memory and learning adapted from the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery. Animals were trained daily in 30 min sessions and had subsequent access to alcohol/Tang® solutions (Alcohol group) or Tang® only (Control group) Monday through Friday for 11 months. Recordings of brainstem auditory evoked potentials (BSAEP) were conducted periodically before and during the chronic drinking. RESULTS Chronic alcohol drinking (ave of 1.78 g/kg alcohol per session) impaired behavioral performance assessed ∼22 h after the prior drinking session. The Alcohol group required more trials than the Control group to reach criterion on the visuo-spatial memory task and showed increased sensitivity to trial difficulty and retention interval. Alcohol animals also had slowed initial acquisition of the bimanual task. The latency of P4 and P5 BSAEP peaks were also delayed in the Alcohol group. Chronic alcohol consumption impaired the acquisition and performance of a spatial memory task and disrupted brainstem auditory processing, thus these results show that repeated alcohol exposure in adolescence interferes with a range of brain functions including complex visuo-spatial mnemonic processing.
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Khursheed F, Tandon N, Tertel K, Pieters TA, Disano MA, Ellmore TM. Frequency-specific electrocorticographic correlates of working memory delay period fMRI activity. Neuroimage 2011; 56:1773-82. [PMID: 21356314 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.02.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2010] [Revised: 02/12/2011] [Accepted: 02/21/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrocorticography (ECoG) and functional MRI (BOLD-fMRI) have been used previously to measure brain activity during working memory delay periods. These studies have separately reported oscillation changes in the theta (4-8 Hz) band and BOLD-fMRI increases during delay periods when information is maintained in memory. However, it is not known how intracranial cortical field potential (CFP) changes relate to BOLD-fMRI responses during delay periods. To answer this question, fMRI was obtained from six epilepsy patients during a visual working memory task. Then, following subdural macroelectrode implant, continuous ECoG was used to record CFPs during the same task. Time-frequency analyses showed delay period gamma band oscillation amplitude increases on electrodes located near fMRI activity, while in the theta band changes were higher for electrodes located away from fMRI activation. The amplitude of the ECoG gamma band response was significantly positively correlated with the fMRI response, while a negative correlation was found for the theta band. The findings are consistent with previous reports of local field potential (LFP) coupling in the gamma band with BOLD-fMRI responses during visual stimulation in monkeys, but are novel in that the relationship reported here persists after the disappearance of visual stimuli while information is being maintained in memory. We conclude that there is a relationship between BOLD-fMRI increases and human working memory delay period gamma oscillation increases and theta decreases. The spectral profile change provides a basis for comparison of working memory delay period BOLD-fMRI with field potential recordings in animals and other human intracranial EEG studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faraz Khursheed
- The Vivian L. Smith Department of Neurosurgery, The University of Texas Medical School at Houston, Houston, TX 77030, USA
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Hare TA, Camerer CF, Rangel A. Self-control in decision-making involves modulation of the vmPFC valuation system. Science 2009; 324:646-8. [PMID: 19407204 DOI: 10.1126/science.1168450] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1209] [Impact Index Per Article: 80.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Every day, individuals make dozens of choices between an alternative with higher overall value and a more tempting but ultimately inferior option. Optimal decision-making requires self-control. We propose two hypotheses about the neurobiology of self-control: (i) Goal-directed decisions have their basis in a common value signal encoded in ventromedial prefrontal cortex (vmPFC), and (ii) exercising self-control involves the modulation of this value signal by dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC). We used functional magnetic resonance imaging to monitor brain activity while dieters engaged in real decisions about food consumption. Activity in vmPFC was correlated with goal values regardless of the amount of self-control. It incorporated both taste and health in self-controllers but only taste in non-self-controllers. Activity in DLPFC increased when subjects exercised self-control and correlated with activity in vmPFC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd A Hare
- Division of Humanities and Social Sciences, California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA.
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10
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Horvitz JC. Stimulus-response and response-outcome learning mechanisms in the striatum. Behav Brain Res 2008; 199:129-40. [PMID: 19135093 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2008] [Revised: 12/04/2008] [Accepted: 12/08/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
While midbrain DA neurons show phasic activations in response to both reward-predicting and salient non-reward events, activation responses to primary and conditioned rewards are sustained for several hundreds of milliseconds beyond those elicited by salient non-reward-related stimuli. The longer-duration DA reward response and corresponding elevated DA release in striatal target sites may selectively strengthen currently-active corticostriatal synapses, i.e., those associated with the successful reward-procuring behavior. This paper describes how similar models of DA-mediated plasticity of corticostriatal synapses may describe both stimulus-response and response-outcome learning. DA-mediated strengthening of corticostriatal synapses in regions of the dorsolateral striatum receiving afferents from primary sensorimotor cortex is likely to bind corticostriatal inputs representing the previously-emitted movement to striatal outputs contributing to the selection of the next movement segment in a behavioral sequence. Within the striatum, more generally, inputs from distinct regions of the frontal cortex that code independently for movement direction and reward expectation send convergent projections to striatal output cells. DA-mediated strengthening of active corticostriatal synapses promotes the future output of the striatal cell under similar input conditions. This is postulated to promote persistence of neuronal activity in the very cortical cells that drive corticostriatal input, leading to the establishment of sustained reverberatory loops that permit cortical movement-related cells to maintain activity until the appropriate time of movement initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon C Horvitz
- Program in Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, The City College of the City University of New York, 138th Street and Convent Avenue, New York, NY 10031, United States.
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Sakagami M, Watanabe M. Integration of cognitive and motivational information in the primate lateral prefrontal cortex. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1104:89-107. [PMID: 17416923 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1390.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex (PFC), particularly the lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), has an important role in cognitive information processing. The area receives projections from sensory association cortices and sends outputs to motor-related areas. Neurons in LPFC code the behavioral significance of stimuli, which can be abstract precursors for complex motor commands and are structured hierarchically. Loss of these neurons leads to a lack of flexibility in decision making, such as seen in stereotyped behaviors. However, to make more appropriate decisions the code for behavioral significance has to reflect the subject's own desires and demands. Indeed, LPFC has connections with reward-related areas, such as the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC), basal ganglia, and medial prefrontal cortex. Recently, many studies have reported reward modulation of neural codes of behavioral significance. Using an asymmetric reward paradigm, we can investigate the functional specificity of LPFC neurons that code both cognitive information and motivational information. In this review, we will discuss details of neuronal properties of LPFC neurons from the viewpoints of cognitive information processing and motivational information processing, and the question of how these two pieces of information are integrated. Abstract coding and contextual representations in the cognitive information processing are functional characteristics of LPFC. Such functional specificity in LPFC cognitive processes is supported by a long-term scale of reward history in the motivational information processing. The integration enables us to make an elaborate decision with respect to goal-directed behavior in complex circumstances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamichi Sakagami
- Brain Science Research Center, Tamagawa University Brain Science Institute, Tamagawa-gakuen, 6-1-1, Machida, Tokyo 194-8610, Japan.
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12
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Sakagami M, Pan X. Functional role of the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex in decision making. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2007; 17:228-33. [PMID: 17350248 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2007.02.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2007] [Accepted: 02/27/2007] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
To make deliberate decisions, we have to utilize detailed information about the environment and our internal states. The ventral visual pathway provides detailed information on object identity, including color and shape, to the ventrolateral prefrontal cortex (VLPFC). The VLPFC also receives motivational and emotional information from the orbitofrontal cortex and subcortical areas, and computes the behavioral significance of external events; this information can be used for elaborate decision making or design of goal-directed behavior. In this review, we discuss recent advances that are revealing the neural mechanisms that underlie the coding of behavioral significance in the VLPFC, and the functional roles of these mechanisms in decision making and action programming in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masamichi Sakagami
- Brain Science Research Center, Tamagawa University Research Institute, Tamagawa-gakuen, 6-1-1 Machida, Tokyo 194-8610, Japan.
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13
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Watanabe M. Role of anticipated reward in cognitive behavioral control. Curr Opin Neurobiol 2007; 17:213-9. [PMID: 17336512 DOI: 10.1016/j.conb.2007.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2006] [Accepted: 02/21/2007] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The lateral prefrontal cortex (LPFC), which is important for higher cognitive activity, is also concerned with motivational operations; this is exemplified by its activity in relation to expectancy of rewards. In the LPFC, motivational information is integrated with cognitive information, as demonstrated by the enhancement of working-memory-related activity by reward expectancy. Such activity would be expected to induce changes in attention and, subsequently, to modify behavioral performance. Recently, the effects of motivation and emotion on neural activities have been examined in several areas of the brain in relation to cognitive-task performance. Of these areas, the LPFC seems to have the most important role in adaptive goal-directed behavior, by sending top-down attention-control signals to other areas of the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masataka Watanabe
- Department of Psychology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Neuroscience, Musashidai 2-6, Fuchu, Tokyo 183-8526, Japan.
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Lee D, Seo H. Mechanisms of reinforcement learning and decision making in the primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2007; 1104:108-22. [PMID: 17347332 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1390.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
To a first approximation, decision making is a process of optimization in which the decision maker tries to maximize the desirability of the outcomes resulting from chosen actions. Estimates of desirability are referred to as utilities or value functions, and they must be continually revised through experience according to the discrepancies between the predicted and obtained rewards. Reinforcement learning theory prescribes various algorithms for updating value functions and can parsimoniously account for the results of numerous behavioral, neurophysiological, and imaging studies in humans and other primates. In this article, we first discuss relative merits of various decision-making tasks used in neurophysiological studies of decision making in nonhuman primates. We then focus on how reinforcement learning theory can shed new light on the function of the primate dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Similar to the findings from other brain areas, such as cingulate cortex and basal ganglia, activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex often signals the value of expected reward and actual outcome. Thus, the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is likely to be a part of the broader network involved in adaptive decision making. In addition, reward-related activity in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is influenced by the animal's choices and other contextual information, and therefore may provide a neural substrate by which the animals can flexibly modify their decision-making strategies according to the demands of specific tasks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daeyeol Lee
- Department of Neurobiology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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Castner SA, Williams GV. Tuning the engine of cognition: A focus on NMDA/D1 receptor interactions in prefrontal cortex. Brain Cogn 2007; 63:94-122. [PMID: 17204357 DOI: 10.1016/j.bandc.2006.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2006] [Revised: 11/05/2006] [Accepted: 11/08/2006] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The prefrontal cortex of the primate frontal lobes provides the capacity for judgment which can constantly adapt behavior in order to optimize its outcome. Adjudicating between long-term memory programs and prepotent responses, this capacity reviews all incoming information and provides an interpretation dependent on the events that have just occurred, the events that are predicted to happen, and the alternative response strategies that are available in the given situation. It has been theorized that this function requires two essential integrated components, a central executive which guides selective attention based on mechanisms of associative memory, as well as the second component, working memory buffers, in which information is held online, abstracted, and translated on a mental sketchpad of work in progress. In this review, we critically outline the evidence that the integration of these processes and, in particular, the induction and maintenance of persistent activity in prefrontal cortex and related networks, is dependent upon the interaction of dopamine D1 and glutamate NMDA receptor signaling at critical nodes within local circuits and distributed networks. We argue that this interaction is not only essential for representational memory, but also core to mechanisms of neuroadaptation and learning. Understanding its functional significance promises to reveal major new insights into prefrontal dysfunction in schizophrenia and, hence, to target a new generation of drugs designed to ameliorate the debilitating working memory deficits in this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stacy A Castner
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06511, USA.
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Watanabe M, Hikosaka K, Sakagami M, Shirakawa SI. Reward Expectancy-Related Prefrontal Neuronal Activities: Are They Neural Substrates of “Affective” Working Memory? Cortex 2007; 43:53-64. [PMID: 17334207 DOI: 10.1016/s0010-9452(08)70445-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Primate prefrontal delay neurons are involved in retaining task-relevant cognitive information in working memory (WM). Recent studies have also revealed primate prefrontal delay neurons that are related to reward/omission-of-reward expectancy. Such reward-related delay activities might constitute "affective WM" (Davidson, 2002). "Affective" and "cognitive" WM are both concerned with representing not what is currently being presented, but rather what was presented previously or might be presented in the future. However, according to the original and widely accepted definition, WM is the "temporary storage and manipulation of information for complex cognitive tasks". Reward/omission-of-reward expectancy-related neuronal activity is neither prerequisite nor essential for accurate task performance; thus, such activity is not considered to comprise the neural substrates of WM. Also, "affective WM" might not be an appropriate usage of the term "WM". We propose that WM- and reward/omission-of-reward expectancy-related neuronal activity are concerned with representing which response should be performed in order to attain a goal (reward) and the goal of the response, respectively. We further suggest that the prefrontal cortex (PFC) plays a crucial role in the integration of cognitive (for example, WM-related) and motivational (for example, reward expectancy-related) operations for goal-directed behaviour. The PFC could then send this integrated information to other brain areas to control the behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masataka Watanabe
- Department of Psychology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute for Neuroscience, Tokyo, Japan.
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