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Takenaka Y, Tomisaki Y, Hirose I, Sugawara K. Effects of Motor Learning on Corticospinal Tract Excitability During Motor Imagery. Percept Mot Skills 2024:315125241275212. [PMID: 39177532 DOI: 10.1177/00315125241275212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/24/2024]
Abstract
We aimed to examine the effects of motor performance improvements produced by practice on corticospinal tract excitability during motor imagery (MI) of identical movements. Participants performed a motor task with no guidelines displayed on the monitor (performance test); the participants only imagined performing the task without performing the movement (MI test), and the participants performed the power output and then adjusted it (exercise). The output force conditions were 20, 40, and 60% of the maximum voluntary contraction, and the objective was for 21 participants to learn each output force condition. The outcome of the performance test was calculated as the difference between the actual motor output and the target. During the MI test, we applied a single transcranial magnetic stimulation during imagery, assessed the corticospinal tract excitability of the right first dorsal interosseous by motor-evoked potential (MEP) amplitude, and recorded the vividness of the MI in each trial. We evaluated performance and MI before practice (Pre-test), after 150 practice sessions (Post-test 1), and after another 150 practice sessions (Post-test 2). The MEP amplitude was significantly reduced at Post-test 2 compared to Pre-test. The vividness of the MI improved with practice. Corticospinal tract excitability during MI decreased as motor performance improved. Thus, actual motor practice was also reflected in the MI of the exercise. Performance improvement was accompanied by a decrease in redundant activity, enhancing the efficiency and appropriateness of the exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Takenaka
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Japan
| | - Yuka Tomisaki
- IMS Yokohama Higashi-Totsuka General Rehabilitation Hospital, Yokohama, Japan
| | | | - Kenichi Sugawara
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Japan
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2
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Kitamura M, Kamibayashi K. Changes in corticospinal excitability during motor imagery by physical practice of a force production task: Effect of the rate of force development during practice. Neuropsychologia 2024; 201:108937. [PMID: 38866222 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2024.108937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2024] [Revised: 06/04/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024]
Abstract
Transcranial magnetic stimulation studies have indicated that the physical practice of a force production task increases corticospinal excitability during motor imagery (MI) of that task. However, it is unclear whether this practice-induced facilitation of corticospinal excitability during MI depends on a repeatedly practiced rate of force development (RFD). We aimed to investigate whether corticospinal excitability during MI of an isometric force production task is facilitated only when imagining the motor task with the same RFD as the physically practiced RFD. Furthermore, we aimed to examine whether corticospinal excitability during MI only occurs immediately after physical practice or is maintained. Twenty-eight right-handed young adults practiced isometric ramp force production using right index finger abduction. Half of the participants (high group) practiced the force production with high RFD, and the other half (low group) practiced the force production with low RFD. Questionnaire scores indicating MI ability were similar in the two groups. We examined the force error relative to the target force during the force production task without visual feedback, and motor evoked potential (MEP) amplitudes of the first dorsal interosseous (FDI) and abductor pollicis brevis (APB) muscles during the MI of the force production task under practiced and unpracticed RFD conditions before, immediately after, and 20 min after physical practice. Our results demonstrated that the force error in both RFD conditions significantly decreased immediately after physical practice, irrespective of the RFD condition practiced. In the high group, the MEP amplitude of the FDI muscle during MI in the high RFD condition significantly increased immediately after practice compared to that before, whereas the MEP amplitude 20 min after practice was not significantly different from that before practice. Conversely, the MEP amplitude during MI in the high RFD condition did not change significantly in the low group, and neither group had significant changes in MEP amplitude during MI in the low RFD condition. The facilitatory effect of corticospinal excitability during MI with high RFD observed only immediately after physical practice in the high RFD condition may reflect short-term functional changes in the primary motor cortex induced by physical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masaya Kitamura
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, 1-3 Tataramiyakodani, Kyotanabe, Kyoto, 610-0394, Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Kamibayashi
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, 1-3 Tataramiyakodani, Kyotanabe, Kyoto, 610-0394, Japan.
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Augenstein TE, Oh S, Norris TA, Mekler J, Sethi A, Krishnan C. Corticospinal excitability during motor preparation of upper extremity reaches reflects flexor muscle synergies: A novel principal component-based motor evoked potential analyses. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2024; 42:121-138. [PMID: 38607772 DOI: 10.3233/rnn-231367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
Background Previous research has shown that noninvasive brain stimulation can be used to study how the central nervous system (CNS) prepares the execution of a motor task. However, these previous studies have been limited to a single muscle or single degree of freedom movements (e.g., wrist flexion). It is currently unclear if the findings of these studies generalize to multi-joint movements involving multiple muscles, which may be influenced by kinematic redundancy and muscle synergies. Objective The objective of this study was to characterize corticospinal excitability during motor preparation in the cortex prior to functional upper extremity reaches. Methods 20 participants without neurological impairments volunteered for this study. During the experiment, the participants reached for a cup in response to a visual "Go Cue". Prior to movement onset, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to stimulate the motor cortex and measured the changes in motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in several upper extremity muscles. We varied each participant's initial arm posture and used a novel synergy-based MEP analysis to examine the effect of muscle coordination on MEPs. Additionally, we varied the timing of the stimulation between the Go Cue and movement onset to examine the time course of motor preparation. Results We found that synergies with strong proximal muscle (shoulder and elbow) components emerged as the stimulation was delivered closer to movement onset, regardless of arm posture, but MEPs in the distal (wrist and finger) muscles were not facilitated. We also found that synergies varied with arm posture in a manner that reflected the muscle coordination of the reach. Conclusions We believe that these findings provide useful insight into the way the CNS plans motor skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Augenstein
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, NeuRRo Lab, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Robotics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Seonga Oh
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, NeuRRo Lab, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Trevor A Norris
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, NeuRRo Lab, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | | | - Amit Sethi
- Department of Occupational Therapy, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Chandramouli Krishnan
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, NeuRRo Lab, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Department of Robotics, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
- Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Michigan Medicine, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
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Takenaka Y, Matsumoto H, Suzuki T, Sugawara K. Corticospinal excitability changes during muscle relaxation and contraction in motor imagery. Eur J Neurosci 2023; 58:3810-3826. [PMID: 37641563 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.16130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2022] [Revised: 08/03/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 08/31/2023]
Abstract
To enhance smooth muscle contraction and relaxation during rehabilitation and sports activities, a comprehensive understanding of the motor control mechanisms within the central nervous system is necessary. However, current knowledge on these aspects is insufficient. Therefore, this study aimed to deepen our understanding of motor controls, by investigating the alterations in corticospinal excitability within cortical motor areas related to muscle contraction and relaxation using motor imagery with a reaction time task paradigm. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to measure the motor-evoked potentials in the first dorsal interosseous muscle of the right hand after the 'go' signal. Static weak muscle contraction (Experiment 1: 18 healthy participants) and resting state (Experiment 2: 16 healthy participants) were applied as background factors, and a trial without motor imagery was performed as a control. Muscle contraction was maintained in the background in the contraction motor imagery. A decrease in excitability in the relaxation motor imagery task occurred compared with the control. When the muscles were at rest, an increase in excitability in the contraction motor imagery and a transient increase in excitability in the relaxation motor imagery occurred compared with the control condition. Hence, the excitability of contraction and relaxation motor imagery is characterized by a continuous increase in excitability, transient increase and subsequent decrease in excitability, respectively. These results suggest that muscle contraction sensory information in the background condition may be necessary for muscle relaxation. Matching the background conditions may be crucial when utilizing motor imagery for rehabilitation or sports training.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Takenaka
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Japan
| | - Hitomi Matsumoto
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Japan
- Division of Rehabilitation, Shonan Keiiku Hospital, Fujisawa, Japan
| | - Tomotaka Suzuki
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Japan
| | - Kenichi Sugawara
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Japan
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5
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Augenstein TE, Oh S, Norris TA, Mekler J, Sethi A, Krishnan C. Muscle Coordination Matters: Insights into Motor Planning using Corticospinal Responses during Functional Reaching. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.05.15.540531. [PMID: 37292868 PMCID: PMC10245565 DOI: 10.1101/2023.05.15.540531] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
The central nervous system (CNS) moves the human body by forming a plan in the primary motor cortex and then executing this plan by activating the relevant muscles. It is possible to study motor planning by using noninvasive brain stimulation techniques to stimulate the motor cortex prior to a movement and examine the evoked responses. Studying the motor planning process can reveal useful information about the CNS, but previous studies have generally been limited to single degree of freedom movements ( e.g., wrist flexion). It is currently unclear if findings in these studies generalize to multi-joint movements, which may be influenced by kinematic redundancy and muscle synergies. Here, our objective was to characterize motor planning in the cortex prior to a functional reach involving the upper extremity. We asked participants to reach for a cup placed in front of them when presented with a visual "Go Cue". Following the go cue, but prior to movement onset, we used transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) to stimulate the motor cortex and measured the changes in the magnitudes of evoked responses in several upper extremity muscles (MEPs). We varied each participant's initial arm posture to examine the effect of muscle coordination on MEPs. Additionally, we varied the timing of the stimulation between the go cue and movement onset to examine the time course of changes in the MEPs. We found that the MEPs in all proximal (shoulder and elbow) muscles increased as the stimulation was delivered closer to movement onset, regardless of arm posture, but MEPs in the distal (wrist and finger) muscles were not facilitated or even inhibited. We also found that facilitation varied with arm posture in a manner that reflected the coordination of the subsequent reach. We believe that these findings provide useful insight into the way the CNS plans motor skills.
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6
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Tecilla M, Guerra A, Rocchi L, Määttä S, Bologna M, Herrojo Ruiz M, Biundo R, Antonini A, Ferreri F. Action Selection and Motor Decision Making: Insights from Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation. Brain Sci 2022; 12:639. [PMID: 35625025 PMCID: PMC9139261 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12050639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 05/07/2022] [Accepted: 05/07/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
In everyday life, goal-oriented motor behaviour relies on the estimation of the rewards/costs associated with alternative actions and on the appropriate selection of movements. Motor decision making is defined as the process by which a motor plan is chosen among a set of competing actions based on the expected value. In the present literature review we discuss evidence from transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) studies of motor control. We focus primarily on studies of action selection for instructed movements and motor decision making. In the first section, we delve into the usefulness of various TMS paradigms to characterise the contribution of motor areas and distributed brain networks to cued action selection. Then, we address the influence of motivational information (e.g., reward and biomechanical cost) in guiding action choices based on TMS findings. Finally, we conclude that TMS represents a powerful tool for elucidating the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying action choices in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margherita Tecilla
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London SE146NW, UK; (M.T.); (M.H.R.)
| | - Andrea Guerra
- IRCCS Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy; (A.G.); (M.B.)
| | - Lorenzo Rocchi
- Department of Medical Sciences and Public Health, University of Cagliari, 09124 Cagliari, Italy;
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, University College London Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London WC1N3BG, UK
| | - Sara Määttä
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Kuopio University Hospital, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland;
| | - Matteo Bologna
- IRCCS Neuromed, 86077 Pozzilli, Italy; (A.G.); (M.B.)
- Department of Human Neurosciences, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Maria Herrojo Ruiz
- Department of Psychology, Goldsmiths, University of London, London SE146NW, UK; (M.T.); (M.H.R.)
| | - Roberta Biundo
- Department of General Psychology and Study Center for Neurodegeneration (CESNE), University of Padua, 35131 Padua, Italy;
- San Camillo IRCSS Hospital, 30126 Lido di Venezia, Italy
| | - Angelo Antonini
- Parkinson and Movement Disorders Unit, Study Center for Neurodegeneration (CESNE), Department of Neuroscience, University of Padua, 35131 Padua, Italy;
| | - Florinda Ferreri
- Department of Clinical Neurophysiology, Kuopio University Hospital, University of Eastern Finland, 70211 Kuopio, Finland;
- Unit of Neurology, Unit of Clinical Neurophysiology and Study Center for Neurodegeneration (CESNE), Department of Neuroscience, University of Padua, 35131 Padua, Italy
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Motor Imagery: How to Assess, Improve Its Performance, and Apply It for Psychosis Diagnostics. Diagnostics (Basel) 2022; 12:diagnostics12040949. [PMID: 35453997 PMCID: PMC9025310 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics12040949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2022] [Revised: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
With this review, we summarize the state-of-the-art of scientific studies in the field of motor imagery (MI) and motor execution (ME). We composed the brain map and description that correlate different brain areas with the type of movements it is responsible for. That gives a more complete and systematic picture of human brain functionality in the case of ME and MI. We systematized the most popular methods for assessing the quality of MI performance and discussed their advantages and disadvantages. We also reviewed the main directions for the use of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in MI research and considered the principal effects of TMS on MI performance. In addition, we discuss the main applications of MI, emphasizing its use in the diagnostics of various neurodegenerative disorders and psychoses. Finally, we discuss the research gap and possible improvements for further research in the field.
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8
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Takenaka Y, Suzuki T, Sugawara K. Time course effect of corticospinal excitability for motor imagery. Eur J Neurosci 2021; 54:6123-6134. [PMID: 34328240 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.15404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2021] [Revised: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
This study examined the effect of temporal changes in corticospinal excitability in motor imagery (MI) and the effect of real-time guides for MI on excitability changes. The MI task involved wrist flexion and motor evoked potentials using transcranial magnetic stimulation were recorded and examined from the flexor carpi radialis. Ballistic (momentary MI) and tonic (continuous MI) conditions were used, and the duration of each MI was different. In Experiment 1, each MI task was performed using an acoustic trigger. In Experiment 2, a real-time guide was presented on a computer screen, which provided a visual indication of the onset and duration of the MI task through via moving dots on the screen. The results indicate that the corticospinal excitability changed differently, depending on the duration of MI. Additionally, with real-time guides, the change in corticospinal excitability became clearer. Thus, corticospinal excitability changes due to the temporal specificities of MI, as well as with actual motor output. Moreover, if MI is actively performed without a guide, it is likely to show an unintended change in corticospinal excitability. It is suggested that when MI is performed with visual guide, the excitatory changes of the corticospinal tract might be different from the actual motor output. Therefore, when using MI for mental practices, it is possible to improve the effect of a guide for MI, such as a visual indicator for motor output. Additionally, when examining neural activities in MI, it may be necessary to consider the characteristics of motion performed by MI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuma Takenaka
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Tomotaka Suzuki
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kenichi Sugawara
- Division of Physical Therapy Science, Graduate Course of Health and Social Work, Kanagawa University of Human Services, Yokosuka, Kanagawa, Japan
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Ferreira CM, de Carvalho CD, Gomes R, Bonifácio de Assis ED, Andrade SM. Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation and Mirror Therapy for Neuropathic Pain After Brachial Plexus Avulsion: A Randomized, Double-Blind, Controlled Pilot Study. Front Neurol 2020; 11:568261. [PMID: 33362687 PMCID: PMC7759497 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2020.568261] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Although transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) and mirror therapy (MT) have benefits in combating chronic pain, there is still no evidence of the effects of the simultaneous application of these techniques in patients with neuropathic pain. This study aims to assess the efficacy of tDCS paired with MT in neuropathic pain after brachial plexus injury. Methods: In a sham controlled, double-blind, parallel-group design, 16 patients were randomized to receive active or sham tDCS administered during mirror therapy. Each patient received 12 treatment sessions, 30 min each, during a period of 4 weeks over M1 contralateral to the side of the injury. Outcome variables were evaluated at baseline and post-treatment using the McGill questionnaire, Brief Pain Inventory, and Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey. Long-term effects of treatment were evaluated at a 3-month follow-up. Results: An improvement in pain relief and quality of life were observed in both groups (p ≤ 0.05). However, active tDCS and mirror therapy resulted in greater improvements after the endpoint (p ≤ 0.02). No statistically significant differences in the outcome measures were identified among the groups at follow-up (p ≥ 0.12). A significant relationship was found between baseline pain intensity and outcome measures (p ≤ 0.04). Moreover, the results showed that state anxiety is closely linked to post-treatment pain relief (p ≤ 0.05). Conclusion: Active tDCS combined with mirror therapy has a short-term effect of pain relief, however, levels of pain and anxiety at the baseline should be considered. Clinical Trial Registration: www.ClinicalTrials.gov, identifier NCT04385030.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Ruth Gomes
- Neuroscience and Aging Laboratory, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
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10
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Unravelling the Modulation of Intracortical Inhibition During Motor Imagery: An Adaptive Threshold-Hunting Study. Neuroscience 2020; 434:102-110. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2020.03.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Bhattacharjee S, Kashyap R, Abualait T, Annabel Chen SH, Yoo WK, Bashir S. The Role of Primary Motor Cortex: More Than Movement Execution. J Mot Behav 2020; 53:258-274. [PMID: 32194004 DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2020.1738992] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The predominant role of the primary motor cortex (M1) in motor execution is well acknowledged. However, additional roles of M1 are getting evident in humans owing to advances in noninvasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques. This review collates such studies in humans and proposes that M1 also plays a key role in higher cognitive processes. The review commences with the studies that have investigated the nature of connectivity of M1 with other cortical regions in light of studies based on NIBS. The review then moves on to discuss the studies that have demonstrated the role of M1 in higher cognitive processes such as attention, motor learning, motor consolidation, movement inhibition, somatomotor response, and movement imagery. Overall, the purpose of the review is to highlight the additional role of M1 in motor cognition besides motor control, which remains unexplored.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Rajan Kashyap
- Center for Research and Development in Learning (CRADLE), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Turki Abualait
- Physical Therapy Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University, Dammam, Saudi Arabia
| | - Shen-Hsing Annabel Chen
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine (LKC Medicine), Nanyang Technological University, Singapore.,Office of Educational Research, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
| | - Woo-Kyoung Yoo
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Hallym University Sacred Heart Hospital, Anyang, South Korea
| | - Shahid Bashir
- Neuroscience Center, King Fahad Specialist Hospital Dammam, Dammam, Saudi Arabia.,Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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12
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Tuning the Corticospinal System: How Distributed Brain Circuits Shape Human Actions. Neuroscientist 2020; 26:359-379. [DOI: 10.1177/1073858419896751] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Interactive behaviors rely on the operation of several processes allowing the control of actions, including their selection, withholding, and cancellation. The corticospinal system provides a unique route through which multiple brain circuits can exert control over bodily motor acts. In humans, the influence of these modulatory circuits on the corticospinal system can be probed using various transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) protocols. Here, we review neural data from TMS studies at the basis of our current understanding of how diverse pathways—including intra-cortical, trans-cortical, and subcortico-cortical circuits—contribute to action control by tuning the activity of the corticospinal system. Critically, when doing so, we point out important caveats in the field that arise from the fact that these circuits, and their impact on the corticospinal system, have not been considered equivalently for action selection, withholding, and cancellation. This has led to the misleading view that some circuits or regions are specialized in specific control processes and that they produce particular modulatory changes in corticospinal excitability (e.g., generic vs. specific modulation of corticospinal excitability). Hence, we point to the need for more transversal research approaches in the field of action control.
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13
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Forgaard CJ, Franks IM, Maslovat D, Chua R. Influence of kinesthetic motor imagery and effector specificity on the long-latency stretch response. J Neurophysiol 2019; 122:2187-2200. [PMID: 31553684 DOI: 10.1152/jn.00159.2019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The long-latency "reflexive" response (LLR) following an upper limb mechanical perturbation is generated by neural circuitry shared with voluntary control. This feedback response supports many task-dependent behaviors and permits the expression of goal-directed corrections at latencies shorter than voluntary reaction time. An extensive body of literature has demonstrated that the LLR shows flexibility akin to voluntary control, but it has not yet been tested whether instruction-dependent LLR changes can also occur in the absence of an overt voluntary response. The present study used kinesthetic motor imagery (experiment 1) and instructed participants to execute movement with the unperturbed contralateral limb (experiment 2) to explore the relationship between the overt production of a voluntary response and LLR facilitation. Activity in stretched right wrist flexors were compared with standard "do not-intervene" and "compensate" conditions. Our findings revealed that on ~40% of imagery and ~50% of contralateral trials, a response occurred during the voluntary epoch in the stretched right wrist flexors. On these "leaked" trials, the early portion of the LLR (R2) was facilitated and displayed a similar increase to compensate trials. The latter half of the LLR (R3) showed further modulation, mirroring the patterns of voluntary epoch activity. By contrast, the LLR on "non-leaked" imagery and contralateral trials did not modulate. We suggest that even though a hastened voluntary response cannot account for all instruction-dependent LLR modulation, the overt execution of a response during the voluntary epoch in the same muscle(s) as the LLR is a prerequisite for instruction-dependent facilitation of this feedback response.NEW & NOTEWORTHY Using motor imagery and contralateral responses, we provide novel evidence that facilitation of the long-latency reflex (LLR) requires the execution of a response during the voluntary epoch. A high proportion of overt response "leaks" were found where the mentally simulated or mirrored response appeared in stretched muscle. The first half of the LLR was categorically sensitive to the appearance of leaks, whereas the latter half displayed characteristics closely resembling activity in the ensuing voluntary period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Forgaard
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada.,The Brain and Mind Institute, Western University, Ontario, Canada.,Department of Psychology, Western University, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ian M Franks
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Dana Maslovat
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
| | - Romeo Chua
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada
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14
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Dissociation between cortical and spinal excitability of the antagonist muscle during combined motor imagery and action observation. Sci Rep 2019; 9:13120. [PMID: 31511567 PMCID: PMC6739353 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-49456-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitory neural control of antagonist muscle is one of the fundamental neural mechanism of coordinated human limb movement. Previous studies have revealed that motor execution (ME) and motor imagery (MI) share many common neural substrates; however, whether inhibitory neural activity occurs during MI remains unknown. In addition, recent studies have demonstrated that a combined MI and action observation (MI + AO) produces strong neurophysiological changes compared with MI or AO alone. Therefore, we investigated inhibitory changes in cortical and spinal excitability of the antagonist muscle during MI + AO and ME. Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) experiments revealed that corticospinal excitability of the antagonist muscle was decreased during MI + AO. Conversely, F-wave experiments showed that F-wave persistence of the antagonist muscle increased. Paired-pulse TMS experiment also demonstrated that short-interval intracortical inhibition (SICI) did not contribute to this inhibition. Therefore, cortical mediated inhibition, except for SICI, may be related to this inhibition. Conversely, such clear inhibition of the antagonist muscle was not observed during ME, presumably owing to the effects of muscle contraction to decelerate the movements and/or sensory input accompanying the joint movements. These findings provide important insights into the neurophysiological differences between MI + AO and ME.
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Bonassi G, Bisio A, Lagravinese G, Ruggeri P, Bove M, Avanzino L. Selective sensorimotor modulation operates during cognitive representation of movement. Neuroscience 2019; 409:16-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.04.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2018] [Revised: 04/14/2019] [Accepted: 04/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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16
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Lopez-Carballo J, Rodriguez N, Soler D, Opisso E, Sbert M. Gestural Interaction and Visual Illusion for Lower Limbs' Neuropathic Pain Treatment. IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng 2018; 26:2217-2225. [PMID: 30295625 DOI: 10.1109/tnsre.2018.2873593] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Pain caused by a lesion or a disease affecting the somatosensory nervous system is known as Neuropathic pain. It has been shown that neuropathic pain can be treated with the combination of simultaneous transcranial direct current stimulation and the generation of the visual illusion that the patient retains control of the affected limbs. For persons with neuropathic pain in the lower limbs, the visual illusion consists of an image of the patient walking normally. Such a visual illusion has classically been generated by using a physical mirror and a projector. The objective of this paper is to develop and validate a computer-based version of the visual illusion, including Gestural Control. The developed system has been validated in a trial and has been successfully implanted in daily clinical practice in a reference neurorehabilitation hospital. A retrospective statistical analysis shows that the patients treated with the computer-based system reduce their pain level significantly more than the patients treated with the mirror and projector treatment before the introduction of the computer-based version. Furthermore, it also makes possible to bring the therapy to the home of the patients, where the treatment can be self-administered while still being monitored by the clinical staff.
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Chi B, Chau B, Yeo E, Ta P. Virtual reality for spinal cord injury-associated neuropathic pain: Systematic review. Ann Phys Rehabil Med 2018; 62:49-57. [PMID: 30312665 DOI: 10.1016/j.rehab.2018.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2018] [Revised: 09/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/15/2018] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Treatment of spinal cord injury (SCI)-associated neuropathic pain is challenging, with limited efficacy and no definitive options, and SCI patients often show resistance to pharmacologic treatment. Virtual reality (VR) therapy is a non-invasive, non-pharmacologic alternative with minimal adverse effects. OBJECTIVE To investigate the effect of VR therapy on SCI-associated neuropathic pain in a systematic review. METHODS Articles needed to 1) be written in English; 2) include adult subjects, with at least half the study population with a SCI diagnosis; 3) involve any form of VR therapy; and 4) assess neuropathic pain by quantitative outcome measures. Articles were searched in MEDLINE/PubMed, CINAHL®, EMBASE, and PsycINFO up to April 2018. Reference lists of retrieved articles were hand-searched. Methodologic quality was assessed by the Physiotherapy Evidence Database Score (PEDro) for randomized controlled trials and Modified Downs and Black Tool (D&B) for all other studies. Level of evidence was determined by using a modified Sackett scale. RESULTS Among 333 studies identified, 9 included in this review (n=150 participants) evaluated 4 methods of VR therapy (virtual walking, VR-augmented training, virtual illusion, and VR hypnosis) for treating neuropathic pain in SCI patients. Each VR method reduced neuropathic pain: 4 studies supported virtual walking, and the other 3 VR methods were each supported by a different study. Combined treatment with virtual walking and transcranial direct current stimulation was the most effective. The quality of studies was a major limitation. CONCLUSION VR therapy could reduce SCI-associated neuropathic pain, although the clinical significance of this analgesic effect is unclear. Clinical trials evaluating VR therapy as standalone and/or adjunct therapy for neuropathic pain in SCI patients are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Chi
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Loma Linda University Health, 11406 Loma Linda Drive, Suite 516, 92354 Loma Linda, CA, USA; Zucker School of Medicine at Hofstra/Northwell, 500 Hofstra Boulevard, 11549 Hempstead, NY, USA.
| | - B Chau
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Loma Linda University Health, 11406 Loma Linda Drive, Suite 516, 92354 Loma Linda, CA, USA; VA Loma Linda Healthcare System, 11201 Benton Street, 92357 Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - E Yeo
- Loma Linda University School of Medicine, 11175 Campus Street, 92350 Loma Linda, CA, USA
| | - P Ta
- Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Loma Linda University Health, 11406 Loma Linda Drive, Suite 516, 92354 Loma Linda, CA, USA
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Darvishi S, Gharabaghi A, Boulay CB, Ridding MC, Abbott D, Baumert M. Proprioceptive Feedback Facilitates Motor Imagery-Related Operant Learning of Sensorimotor β-Band Modulation. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:60. [PMID: 28232788 PMCID: PMC5299002 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
Motor imagery (MI) activates the sensorimotor system independent of actual movements and might be facilitated by neurofeedback. Knowledge on the interaction between feedback modality and the involved frequency bands during MI-related brain self-regulation is still scarce. Previous studies compared the cortical activity during the MI task with concurrent feedback (MI with feedback condition) to cortical activity during the relaxation task where no feedback was provided (relaxation without feedback condition). The observed differences might, therefore, be related to either the task or the feedback. A proper comparison would necessitate studying a relaxation condition with feedback and a MI task condition without feedback as well. Right-handed healthy subjects performed two tasks, i.e., MI and relaxation, in alternating order. Each of the tasks (MI vs. relaxation) was studied with and without feedback. The respective event-driven oscillatory activity, i.e., sensorimotor desynchronization (during MI) or synchronization (during relaxation), was rewarded with contingent feedback. Importantly, feedback onset was delayed to study the task-related cortical activity in the absence of feedback provision during the delay period. The reward modality was alternated every 15 trials between proprioceptive and visual feedback. Proprioceptive input was superior to visual input to increase the range of task-related spectral perturbations in the α- and β-band, and was necessary to consistently achieve MI-related sensorimotor desynchronization (ERD) significantly below baseline. These effects occurred in task periods without feedback as well. The increased accuracy and duration of learned brain self-regulation achieved in the proprioceptive condition was specific to the β-band. MI-related operant learning of brain self-regulation is facilitated by proprioceptive feedback and mediated in the sensorimotor β-band.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sam Darvishi
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of AdelaideAdelaide, SA, Australia; Division of Functional and Restorative Neurosurgery, and Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, Eberhard Karls University TuebingenTubingen, Germany
| | - Alireza Gharabaghi
- Division of Functional and Restorative Neurosurgery, and Centre for Integrative Neuroscience, Eberhard Karls University Tuebingen Tubingen, Germany
| | - Chadwick B Boulay
- The Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, University of Ottawa Ottawa, ON, Canada
| | - Michael C Ridding
- The Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Derek Abbott
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Mathias Baumert
- School of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, University of Adelaide Adelaide, SA, Australia
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Neural plasticity during motor learning with motor imagery practice: Review and perspectives. Neuroscience 2016; 341:61-78. [PMID: 27890831 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2016.11.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 116] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/17/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
In the last decade, many studies confirmed the benefits of mental practice with motor imagery. In this review we first aimed to compile data issued from fundamental and clinical investigations and to provide the key-components for the optimization of motor imagery strategy. We focused on transcranial magnetic stimulation studies, supported by brain imaging research, that sustain the current hypothesis of a functional link between cortical reorganization and behavioral improvement. As perspectives, we suggest a model of neural adaptation following mental practice, in which synapse conductivity and inhibitory mechanisms at the spinal level may also play an important role.
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20
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Berghuis KMM, Veldman MP, Solnik S, Koch G, Zijdewind I, Hortobágyi T. Neuronal mechanisms of motor learning and motor memory consolidation in healthy old adults. AGE (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2015; 37:9779. [PMID: 25956604 PMCID: PMC4425712 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-015-9779-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2015] [Accepted: 04/14/2015] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
It is controversial whether or not old adults are capable of learning new motor skills and consolidate the performance gains into motor memory in the offline period. The underlying neuronal mechanisms are equally unclear. We determined the magnitude of motor learning and motor memory consolidation in healthy old adults and examined if specific metrics of neuronal excitability measured by magnetic brain stimulation mediate the practice and retention effects. Eleven healthy old adults practiced a wrist extension-flexion visuomotor skill for 20 min (MP, 71.3 years), while a second group only watched the templates without movements (attentional control, AC, n = 11, 70.5 years). There was 40 % motor learning in MP but none in AC (interaction, p < 0.001) with the skill retained 24 h later in MP and a 16 % improvement in AC. Corticospinal excitability at rest and during task did not change, but when measured during contraction at 20 % of maximal force, it strongly increased in MP and decreased in AC (interaction, p = 0.002). Intracortical inhibition at rest and during the task decreased and facilitation at rest increased in MP, but these metrics changed in the opposite direction in AC. These neuronal changes were especially profound at retention. Healthy old adults can learn a new motor skill and consolidate the learned skill into motor memory, processes that are most likely mediated by disinhibitory mechanisms. These results are relevant for the increasing number of old adults who need to learn and relearn movements during motor rehabilitation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. M. M. Berghuis
- />Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9700 AD The Netherlands
| | - M. P. Veldman
- />Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9700 AD The Netherlands
| | - S. Solnik
- />Motor Control Laboratory, Department of Kinesiology, Pennsylvania State University, State College, PA USA
- />University School of Physical Education, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - G. Koch
- />Laboratorio di Neurologia Clinica e Comportamentale, Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Rome, Italy
| | - I. Zijdewind
- />Department of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - T. Hortobágyi
- />Center for Human Movement Sciences, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, A. Deusinglaan 1, Groningen, 9700 AD The Netherlands
- />Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
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Kato K, Watanabe J, Muraoka T, Kanosue K. Motor imagery of voluntary muscle relaxation induces temporal reduction of corticospinal excitability. Neurosci Res 2015; 92:39-45. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2014.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
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Christie A, Kamen G. Cortical inhibition is reduced following short-term training in young and older adults. AGE (DORDRECHT, NETHERLANDS) 2014; 36:749-758. [PMID: 23943112 PMCID: PMC4039252 DOI: 10.1007/s11357-013-9577-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2013] [Accepted: 07/31/2013] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate age-related differences in short-term training adaptations in cortical excitability and inhibition. Thirty young (21.9 ± 3.1 years) and 30 older (72.9 ± 4.6 years) individuals participated in the study. Each participant was randomly assigned to a control (n = 30) or a resistance training (n = 30) group, with equal numbers of young and older subjects in each group. Participants completed 2 days of testing, separated by 2 weeks during which time the training group participated in resistance training of the ankle dorsiflexor muscles three times per week. During each testing session, transcranial magnetic stimulation was used to generate motor evoked potentials (MEPs) and silent periods in the tibialis anterior. Hoffmann reflexes (H-reflexes) and compound muscle action potentials (M-waves) were also evoked via electrical stimulation of the peroneal nerve. At baseline, young subjects had higher maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) force (p = 0.002), larger M-wave amplitude (p < 0.001), and longer duration silent periods (p = 0.01) than older individuals, with no differences in the maximal amplitude of the MEP (p = 0.23) or H-reflex (p = 0.57). In the trained group, MVC increased in both young (17.4 %) and older (19.8 %) participants (p < 0.001), and the duration of the silent period decreased by ~15 and 12 ms, respectively (p < 0.001). Training did not significantly impact MEP (p = 0.69) or H-reflex amplitudes (p = 0.38). There were no significant changes in any measures in the control group (p ≥ 0.19) across the two testing sessions. These results indicate that a reduction in cortical inhibition may be an important neural adaptation in response to training in both young and older adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anita Christie
- Department of Kinesiology, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, MA, 01003, USA,
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23
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When unintended movements “leak” out: A startling acoustic stimulus can elicit a prepared response during motor imagery and action observation. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:838-44. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2012] [Revised: 01/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Gueugneau N, Bove M, Avanzino L, Jacquin A, Pozzo T, Papaxanthis C. Interhemispheric inhibition during mental actions of different complexity. PLoS One 2013; 8:e56973. [PMID: 23451125 PMCID: PMC3581568 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0056973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2012] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Several investigations suggest that actual and mental actions trigger similar neural substrates. Yet, neurophysiological evidences on the nature of interhemispheric interactions during mental movements are still meagre. Here, we asked whether the content of mental images, investigated by task complexity, is finely represented in the inhibitory interactions between the two primary motor cortices (M1s). Subjects' left M1 was stimulated by means of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) while they were performing actual or mental movements of increasing complexity with their right hand and exerting a maximum isometric force with their left thumb and index. Thus, we simultaneously assessed the corticospinal excitability in the right opponent pollicis muscle (OP) and the ipsilateral silent period (iSP) in the left OP during actual and mental movements. Corticospinal excitability in right OP increased during actual and mental movements, but task complexity-dependent changes were only observed during actual movements. Interhemispheric motor inhibition in the left OP was similarly modulated by task complexity in both mental and actual movements. Precisely, the duration and the area of the iSP increased with task complexity in both movement conditions. Our findings suggest that mental and actual movements share similar inhibitory neural circuits between the two homologous primary motor cortex areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Gueugneau
- Université de Bourgogne, Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Dijon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité sensorimotrice, Dijon, France
| | - Marco Bove
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Human Physiology and Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze Motorie, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Laura Avanzino
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Section of Human Physiology and Centro Polifunzionale di Scienze Motorie, University of Genoa, Genoa, Italy
| | - Agnès Jacquin
- Service de Neurologie, Faculté de Médecine de Dijon, Dijon, France
| | - Thierry Pozzo
- Université de Bourgogne, Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Dijon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité sensorimotrice, Dijon, France
- Italian Institute of Technology, Genoa, Italy
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
| | - Charalambos Papaxanthis
- Université de Bourgogne, Unité de Formation et de Recherche en Sciences et Techniques des Activités Physiques et Sportives, Dijon, France
- Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale (INSERM), Unité 1093, Cognition, Action et Plasticité sensorimotrice, Dijon, France
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Guillot A, Di Rienzo F, Macintyre T, Moran A, Collet C. Imagining is Not Doing but Involves Specific Motor Commands: A Review of Experimental Data Related to Motor Inhibition. Front Hum Neurosci 2012; 6:247. [PMID: 22973214 PMCID: PMC3433680 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2012.00247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 141] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 08/10/2012] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
There is now compelling evidence that motor imagery (MI) and actual movement share common neural substrate. However, the question of how MI inhibits the transmission of motor commands into the efferent pathways in order to prevent any movement is largely unresolved. Similarly, little is known about the nature of the electromyographic activity that is apparent during MI. In addressing these gaps in the literature, the present paper argues that MI includes motor execution commands for muscle contractions which are blocked at some level of the motor system by inhibitory mechanisms. We first assemble data from neuroimaging studies that demonstrate that the neural networks mediating MI and motor performance are not totally overlapping, thereby highlighting potential differences between MI and actual motor execution. We then review MI data indicating the presence of subliminal muscular activity reflecting the intrinsic characteristics of the motor command as well as increased corticomotor excitability. The third section not only considers the inhibitory mechanisms involved during MI but also examines how the brain resolves the problem of issuing the motor command for action while supervising motor inhibition when people engage in voluntary movement during MI. The last part of the paper draws on imagery research in clinical contexts to suggest that some patients move while imagining an action, although they are not aware of such movements. In particular, experimental data from amputees as well as from patients with Parkinson’s disease are discussed. We also review recent studies based on comparing brain activity in tetraplegic patients with that from healthy matched controls that provide insights into inhibitory processes during MI. We conclude by arguing that based on available evidence, a multifactorial explanation of motor inhibition during MI is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aymeric Guillot
- Centre de Recherche et d'Innovation sur le Sport (EA 647), équipe Performance Motrice, Mentale et du Matériel, Université de Lyon, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1 Villeurbanne, France
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Dual-task practice enhances motor learning: a preliminary investigation. Exp Brain Res 2012; 222:201-10. [PMID: 22886044 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-012-3206-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2012] [Accepted: 07/24/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Practicing a motor task under dual-task conditions can be beneficial to motor learning when the secondary task is difficult (Roche et al. in Percept Psychophys 69(4):513-522, 2007) or when it engages similar processes as the primary motor task (Hemond et al. in J Neurosci 30(2):650-654, 2010). The purpose of this pilot study was to determine which factor, difficulty level or engaged processes, of a secondary task is more critical in determining dual-task benefit. Participants practiced a discrete arm task in conjunction with an audio-vocal reaction time (RT) task. We presented two different RT tasks that differed in difficulty, simple versus choice (i.e., more difficult), at two different arm task phases that differed in engaged processes, preparation versus execution, resulting in four dual-task conditions. A simple RT task is thought to predominantly engage motor execution processes, therefore would engage similar processes as the arm movement task when it is presented during the execution phase, while a choice RT task is thought to engage planning processes and therefore would engage similar processes too when it is presented during the preparation phase. Enhanced motor learning was found in those who engaged similar process as the primary task during dual-tasking (i.e., choice RT presented during preparation and simple RT presented during execution). Moreover, those who showed enhanced learning also demonstrated high dual-task cost (poor RT task performance) during practice, indicating that both tasks were taxing the same resource pool possibly due to engaging similar cognitive processes. To further test the relation between dual-task cost and enhanced learning, we delayed the presentation timing of the choice RT task during the preparation phase and the simple RT task during the execution phase in two control experiments. Dual-task cost was reduced in these delayed timing conditions, and the enhanced learning effect was attenuated. Together, our preliminary findings suggest that it is the similarity hypothesis and not the difficulty hypothesis that mediates the enhanced motor learning under dual-task conditions.
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Raffin E, Mattout J, Reilly KT, Giraux P. Disentangling motor execution from motor imagery with the phantom limb. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012; 135:582-95. [PMID: 22345089 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awr337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
Amputees can move their phantom limb at will. These 'movements without movements' have generally been considered as motor imagery rather than motor execution, but amputees can in fact perform both executed and imagined movements with their phantom and they report distinct perceptions during each task. Behavioural evidence for this dual ability comes from the fact that executed movements are associated with stump muscle contractions whereas imagined movements are not, and that phantom executed movements are slower than intact hand executed movements whereas the speed of imagined movements is identical for both hands. Since neither execution nor imagination produces any visible movement, we hypothesized that the perceptual difference between these two motor tasks relies on the activation of distinct cerebral networks. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging and changes in functional connectivity (dynamic causal modelling), we examined the activity associated with imagined and executed movements of the intact and phantom hands of 14 upper-limb amputees. Distinct but partially overlapping cerebral networks were active during both executed and imagined phantom limb movements (both performed at the same speed). A region of interest analysis revealed a 'switch' between execution and imagination; during execution there was more activity in the primary somatosensory cortex, the primary motor cortex and the anterior lobe of the cerebellum, while during imagination there was more activity in the parietal and occipital lobes, and the posterior lobe of the cerebellum. In overlapping areas, task-related differences were detected in the location of activation peaks. The dynamic causal modelling analysis further confirmed the presence of a clear neurophysiological distinction between imagination and execution, as motor imagery and motor execution had opposite effects on the supplementary motor area-primary motor cortex network. This is the first imaging evidence that the neurophysiological network activated during phantom limb movements is similar to that of executed movements of intact limbs and differs from the phantom limb imagination network. The dual ability of amputees to execute and imagine movements of their phantom limb and the fact that these two tasks activate distinct cortical networks are important factors to consider when designing rehabilitation programmes for the treatment of phantom limb pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Estelle Raffin
- Service de Médecine Physique et de Réadaptation, Hôpital Bellevue, CHU de Saint-Etienne, F-42055 Saint-Etienne, France
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Oku K, Ishida H, Okada Y, Hiraoka K. Facilitation of corticospinal excitability during motor imagery of wrist movement with visual or quantitative inspection of EMG activity. Percept Mot Skills 2012; 113:982-94. [PMID: 22403940 DOI: 10.2466/05.23.25.pms.113.6.982-994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The present study investigated facilitation of corticospinal excitability during motor imagery of wrist movement with visual or quantitative inspection of background electromyographic (EMG) activity. Ten healthy participants imagined wrist extension from a first-person perspective in response to a start cue. Transcranial magnetic stimulation was delivered to the motor cortex 2 sec. after the start cue. EMG signals were recorded from the extensor carpi radialis muscle. Trials with background EMG activity were discarded based on visual inspection. Both motor-evoked potential (MEP) and background EMG amplitudes increased during motor imagery. The amount of increase in MEP amplitude was positively correlated with the amount of increase in background EMG amplitude during motor imagery. The statistically significant increase in MEP amplitude during motor imagery disappeared when the effect of muscle activity was statistically eliminated or after trials with background EMG activity were discarded based on strict quantitative criteria. Facilitation of corticospinal excitability during motor imagery of wrist movement depends partially on muscle activity. Discarding background EMG activity during motor imagery based on visual inspection is not sufficient to equalize background EMG amplitude between resting and motor imagery. Discarding trials with background EMG activity through strict quantitative criteria is useful to equalize background EMG amplitude between at rest and during motor imagery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kosuke Oku
- Graduate School of Comprehensive Rehabilitation, Osaka Prefecture University, Japan
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29
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Lebon F, Byblow WD, Collet C, Guillot A, Stinear CM. The modulation of motor cortex excitability during motor imagery depends on imagery quality. Eur J Neurosci 2011; 35:323-31. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2011.07938.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Shibasaki H. Cortical activities associated with voluntary movements and involuntary movements. Clin Neurophysiol 2011; 123:229-43. [PMID: 21906995 DOI: 10.1016/j.clinph.2011.07.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2011] [Revised: 07/05/2011] [Accepted: 07/25/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Recent advance in non-invasive techniques including electrophysiology and functional neuroimaging has enabled investigation of control mechanism of voluntary movements and pathophysiology of involuntary movements in human. Epicortical recording with subdural electrodes in epilepsy patients complemented the findings obtained by the non-invasive techniques. Before self-initiated simple movement, activation occurs first in the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA) and SMA proper bilaterally with some somatotopic organisation, and the lateral premotor area (PMA) and primary motor cortex (M1) mainly contralateral to the movement with precise somatotopic organisation. Functional connectivity among cortical areas has been disclosed by cortico-cortical coherence, cortico-cortical evoked potential, and functional MRI. Cortical activities associated with involuntary movements have been studied by jerk-locked back averaging and cortico-muscular coherence. Application of transcranial magnetic stimulation helped clarifying the state of excitability and inhibition in M1. The sensorimotor cortex (S1-M1) was shown to play an important role in generation of cortical myoclonus, essential tremor, Parkinson tremor and focal dystonia. Cortical myoclonus is actively driven by S1-M1 while essential tremor and Parkinson tremor are mediated by S1-M1. 'Negative motor areas' at PMA and pre-SMA and 'inhibitory motor areas' at peri-rolandic cortex might be involved in the control of voluntary movement and generation of negative involuntary movements, respectively.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Shibasaki
- Kyoto University Graduate School of Medicine, Shogoin, Sakyo, Kyoto 606-8507, Japan.
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Park WH, Li S. No graded responses of finger muscles to TMS during motor imagery of isometric finger forces. Neurosci Lett 2011; 494:255-9. [PMID: 21406217 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2010] [Revised: 01/10/2011] [Accepted: 03/08/2011] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies of motor imagery have shown that the same neural correlates for actual movement are selectively activated during motor imagery of the same movement. However, little is known about motor imagery of isometric force. The aim of the present study was to investigate the neural correlates involved in motor imagery of isometric finger forces. Ten subjects were instructed to produce a finger flexion or extension force ranging from 10% to 60% of maximal isometric force and to mentally reproduce the force after an eight-second delay period. Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied over the hand motor area during imagining the force. We measured the amplitude of motor evoked potentials (MEPs) from the flexor digitorum superfialis (FDS) and the extensor digitorum communis (EDC) muscles and TMS-induced forces from the proximal phalanxes. The results showed that, as compared to the rest condition, the MEP amplitude was greater in the FDS during imagining flexion forces, whereas it was greater in the EDC during imagining extension forces. MEP amplitudes were similar for motor imagery of graded flexion or extension forces. Also, TMS produced flexion forces during imagining flexion forces, whereas it produced extension forces during imagining extension forces. There was no change in the amplitude of TMS-induced forces across graded motor imagery task. These results support the notion that the same neural correlates for actual movement could be selectively activated during motor imagery of the same movement, but demonstrated that the magnitude of isometric force could not be mentally simulated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Woo-Hyung Park
- Systems Neuroscience Institute, Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
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Tanaka Y, Funase K, Sekiya H, Sasaki J, Takemoto T. Multiple EMG Activity and Intracortical Inhibition and Facilitation During a Fine Finger Movement Under Pressure. J Mot Behav 2010; 43:73-81. [DOI: 10.1080/00222895.2010.542508] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Wilson C, Smith D, Burden A, Holmes P. Participant-generated imagery scripts produce greater EMG activity and imagery ability. Eur J Sport Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/17461391003770491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christine Wilson
- a Department of Exercise and Sport Science , The Manchester Metropolitan University , Crewe
| | - Dave Smith
- a Department of Exercise and Sport Science , The Manchester Metropolitan University , Crewe
| | - Adrian Burden
- a Department of Exercise and Sport Science , The Manchester Metropolitan University , Crewe
| | - Paul Holmes
- b Biomedical, Health and Behavioural Sciences, Research Institute for Health and Social Change , The Manchester Metropolitan University , Manchester, UK
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Age-related differences in human corticospinal excitability during simple reaction time. Neurosci Lett 2010; 487:53-7. [PMID: 20932881 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2010.09.072] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2010] [Revised: 09/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Age-related declines in central processing may delay the facilitation of corticospinal (CS) tracts that underlie emergence of voluntary responses to external stimuli. To explore this effect, single pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was applied to the left motor cortex at different latencies from the go-signal (auditory tone) during a simple reaction time (SRT) task with the right or left thumb [i.e. right (RHM) or left hand move (LHM)]. Motor evoked potentials (MEPs) in the right abductor pollicis brevis (APB) were recorded from eleven healthy right-handed participants (aged 22-65; six young adults and five old adults). Both age groups showed significant facilitation of CS excitability approximately 100-120 ms from the onset of the go-signal in the RHM SRT that occurred before the onset of EMG voluntary burst, with no evidence for motor slowing in old adults. Old adults demonstrated a significant facilitation of MEPs in the time that preceded the go-signal for RHM SRT and a marked depression of CS excitability in preparation for the LHM SRT that was sustained up to 80 ms after the onset of the go-signal. Both effects were not seen in young adults. While the small number of participants may hinder the generality of the present observations, this pilot study suggests for the first time that old adults implemented selective tuning of CS excitability prior to the onset of the go command to speed up their response generation.
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Soler MD, Kumru H, Pelayo R, Vidal J, Tormos JM, Fregni F, Navarro X, Pascual-Leone A. Effectiveness of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion on neuropathic pain in spinal cord injury. Brain 2010; 133:2565-77. [PMID: 20685806 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awq184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 213] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate the analgesic effect of transcranial direct current stimulation of the motor cortex and techniques of visual illusion, applied isolated or combined, in patients with neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury. In a sham controlled, double-blind, parallel group design, 39 patients were randomized into four groups receiving transcranial direct current stimulation with walking visual illusion or with control illusion and sham stimulation with visual illusion or with control illusion. For transcranial direct current stimulation, the anode was placed over the primary motor cortex. Each patient received ten treatment sessions during two consecutive weeks. Clinical assessment was performed before, after the last day of treatment, after 2 and 4 weeks follow-up and after 12 weeks. Clinical assessment included overall pain intensity perception, Neuropathic Pain Symptom Inventory and Brief Pain Inventory. The combination of transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion reduced the intensity of neuropathic pain significantly more than any of the single interventions. Patients receiving transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion experienced a significant improvement in all pain subtypes, while patients in the transcranial direct current stimulation group showed improvement in continuous and paroxysmal pain, and those in the visual illusion group improved only in continuous pain and dysaesthesias. At 12 weeks after treatment, the combined treatment group still presented significant improvement on the overall pain intensity perception, whereas no improvements were reported in the other three groups. Our results demonstrate that transcranial direct current stimulation and visual illusion can be effective in the management of neuropathic pain following spinal cord injury, with minimal side effects and with good tolerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Dolors Soler
- Hospital de Neurorehabilitació, Institut Guttmann, Camí Can Ruti s/n. Barcelona, 08916 Badalona, Spain.
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Roosink M, Zijdewind I. Corticospinal excitability during observation and imagery of simple and complex hand tasks: implications for motor rehabilitation. Behav Brain Res 2010; 213:35-41. [PMID: 20433871 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2010.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 93] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2009] [Revised: 04/12/2010] [Accepted: 04/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Movement observation and imagery are increasingly propagandized for motor rehabilitation. Both observation and imagery are thought to improve motor function through repeated activation of mental motor representations. However, it is unknown what stimulation parameters or imagery conditions are optimal for rehabilitation purposes. A better understanding of the mechanisms underlying movement observation and imagery is essential for the optimization of functional outcome using these training conditions. This study systematically assessed the corticospinal excitability during rest, observation, imagery and execution of a simple and a complex finger-tapping sequence in healthy controls using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS). Observation was conducted passively (without prior instructions) as well as actively (in order to imitate). Imagery was performed visually and kinesthetically. A larger increase in corticospinal excitability was found during active observation in comparison with passive observation and visual or kinesthetic imagery. No significant difference between kinesthetic and visual imagery was found. Overall, the complex task led to a higher corticospinal excitability in comparison with the simple task. In conclusion, the corticospinal excitability was modulated during both movement observation and imagery. Specifically, active observation of a complex motor task resulted in increased corticospinal excitability. Active observation may be more effective than imagery for motor rehabilitation purposes. In addition, the activation of mental motor representations may be optimized by varying task-complexity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meyke Roosink
- Department of Neuroscience, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Munzert J, Lorey B, Zentgraf K. Cognitive motor processes: The role of motor imagery in the study of motor representations. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2009; 60:306-26. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2008.12.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 486] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2008] [Revised: 12/28/2008] [Accepted: 12/31/2008] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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