1
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Beracci A, Fabbri M. Vertical Mental Timeline Is Not Influenced by VisuoSpatial Processing. Brain Sci 2024; 14:184. [PMID: 38391758 PMCID: PMC10886795 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci14020184] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Revised: 02/08/2024] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
The results examining the direction (bottom-to-top vs. top-to-bottom) of the mental vertical timeline are not conclusive. The visuospatial processing of temporal stimuli along vertical space could influence this time representation. This study aimed to investigate whether and how the visuospatial processing stage modulated the vertical timeline in an online temporal categorization task. In three studies, Italian university students (N = 150) responded more quickly to words expressing the past with a down arrow key, and more quickly to words expressing the future with an up arrow key, irrespective of whether the words were located in the top, middle, or bottom space (Experiment 1), or were presented downward (from top to bottom; Experiment 2A) or upward (from bottom to top Experiment 2B). These results suggest that the representation of time was not influenced by the visuospatial processing. The daily experience with verticality (e.g., to reach the attic, the lift goes up) could explain the bottom-to-top direction of the mental timeline.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessia Beracci
- Department of Psychology Renzo Canestrari, University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Marco Fabbri
- Department of Psychology, University of Campania Luigi Vanvitelli, 81100 Caserta, Italy
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2
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Scozia G, Pinto M, Pellegrino M, Lozito S, Pia L, Lasaponara S, Doricchi F. How time gets spatial: factors determining the stability and instability of the mental time line. Atten Percept Psychophys 2023; 85:2321-2336. [PMID: 37468788 PMCID: PMC10584722 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-023-02746-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/07/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023]
Abstract
Left-to-right readers classify faster past events with motor responses on the left side of space and future events with responses on the right side. This suggests a left-to-right spatial organization in the mental representation of time. Here, we show that the significance and reliability of this representation are linked to the joint use of temporal and spatial codes in the task at hand. In a first unimanual Go/No-Go Implicit Association Test (IAT), attending selectively to "past" or to "future" words did not activate corresponding "left" or "right" spatial concepts and vice versa. In a second IAT, attending to both temporal (i.e., "past" and "future") words and spatial targets (i.e., "left" and "right") pointing arrows produced faster responses for congruent rather than incongruent combinations of temporal and spatial concepts in task instructions (e.g., congruent = "Go with past words and left-pointing arrows"; incongruent = "Go with past words and right-pointing arrows"). This effect increased markedly in a STEARC task where spatial codes defined the selection between "left-side" and "right-side" button presses that were associated with "past" and "future" words. Two control experiments showed only partial or unreliable space-time congruency effects when (a) participants attended to superordinate semantic codes that included both spatial "left"/"right" or temporal "past/future" subordinate codes; (b) a primary speeded response was assigned to one dimension (e.g., "past vs. future") and a nonspeeded one to the other dimension (e.g., "left" vs. "right"). These results help to define the conditions that trigger a stable and reliable spatial representation of time-related concepts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Scozia
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy.
- PhD program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy.
| | - Mario Pinto
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy
| | - Michele Pellegrino
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy
| | - Silvana Lozito
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy
- PhD program in Behavioral Neuroscience, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy
| | - Lorenzo Pia
- Department of Psychology, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Stefano Lasaponara
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Doricchi
- Dipartimento di Psicologia, Università degli Studi di Roma 'La Sapienza', Roma, Italy.
- Fondazione Santa Lucia IRCCS, Roma, Italy.
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3
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Wang L, Li C, Han Z, Wu Q, Sun L, Zhang X, Go R, Wu J, Yan T. Spatiotemporal and sensory modality attention processing with domain-specific representations in frontoparietal areas. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:5489-5502. [PMID: 35136999 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhac029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 01/10/2022] [Accepted: 02/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The frontoparietal network (FPN), including bilateral frontal eye field, inferior parietal sulcus, and supplementary motor area, has been linked to attention processing, including spatiotemporal and sensory modality domains. However, it is unclear whether FPN encodes representations of these domains that are generalizable across subdomains. We decomposed multivariate patterns of functional magnetic resonance imaging activity from 20 participants into domain-specific components and identified latent multivariate representations that generalized across subdomains. The 30 experimental conditions were organized into unimodal-bimodal and spatial-temporal models. We found that brain areas in the FPN, form the primary network that modulated during attention across domains. However, the activation patterns of areas within the FPN were reorganized according to the specific attentional demand, especially when pay attention to different sensory, suggesting distinct regional neural representations associated with specific attentional processes within FPN. In addition, there were also other domain-specific areas outside the FPN, such as the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex. Our conclusion is that, according to the results of the analysis of representation similarity, 2 types of activated brain regions, related to attention domain detailed information processing and general information processing, can be revealed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Wang
- School of Life Science, Shanghai University, Shanghai 200444, China
| | - Chunlin Li
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Fundamental Research on Biomechanics in Clinical Application, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Ziteng Han
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Qiong Wu
- Department of Psychology, Suzhou University of Science and Technology, Suzhou 215009, China.,Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama University, Okayama 700-0084, Japan
| | - Liwei Sun
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Fundamental Research on Biomechanics in Clinical Application, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Xu Zhang
- School of Biomedical Engineering, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Big Data-Based Precision Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China.,Beijing Key Laboratory of Fundamental Research on Biomechanics in Clinical Application, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China
| | - Ritsu Go
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jinglong Wu
- School of Mechatronical Engineering, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China.,Cognitive Neuroscience Lab, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Science and Engineering in Health Systems, Okayama University, Okayama 700-0084, Japan
| | - Tianyi Yan
- School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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4
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The perceived duration of vast spaces is mediated by awe. Atten Percept Psychophys 2022; 84:2562-2581. [PMID: 36045311 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-022-02542-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Looking out over the Pacific Ocean or the Grand Canyon can lead to a sense of vastness. As a perceptual phenomenon, vastness poses a unique challenge because traditional measures of distance are not capable of explaining such large spatial extents. Vastness, however, may lead to a sense of awe, and awe, in turn, can dilate one's experience of time. Time, then, may be a meaningful proxy measure of vastness. Whether vastness is related to the perception of time and if the emotional experience of awe plays a role in that relation was explored herein. Across three experiments, we examined the relation between vastness, awe, and perceived time. In Experiment 1, participants reproduced the perceived duration of images varying in vastness and rated them in terms of the awe experienced as if they were in the spaces. Greater vastness led to higher awe scores and longer duration estimates, with awe mediating the relation between vastness and time. Experiment 1 assessed if the average brightness of images, absent of scene structure, explained changes in perceived duration. Brightness did not explain variance in perceived duration; thus, the scene structure of vast scenes may play a role in altering perceived time. Experiment 1 examined if scene semantics could explain changes in perceived duration. Whereas the relation between vastness and perceived duration vanished, a weak, mediated effect still occurred. Ultimately, time may not be a proxy measure of vastness, but we find evidence that emotion can link the relation between spatial and temporal perception.
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Persson AC, Janeslätt G, Dahlberg L, Löfgren M, Möller M. Associations between Time Processing Ability, Daily Time Management, and Dementia Severity. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:3928. [PMID: 35409618 PMCID: PMC8997539 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19073928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 03/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
This study investigated associations between time processing ability (TPA), daily time management (DTM), and dementia severity. Persons with dementia (PwDs) (n = 53) and their significant others (n = 49) participated in this cross-sectional study. Bivariate analyses were used to investigate associations between TPA and DTM and the dementia severity. Linear regression models were used to further predict the contribution of the subtests in the Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE) for TPA results. The results showed significant correlations between TPA and dementia severity, where visuospatial functions were the most highly correlated. TPA also showed a significant correlation to proxy-rated DTM. In addition, proxy-rated DTM was significantly correlated with dementia severity and PwDs' own self-ratings of their DTM. Knowledge of the association between TPA, dementia severity, and visuospatial functions can enable early detection of TPA impairments. For a comprehensive assessment of TPA and DTM, objective measures should be used in combination with self-ratings and proxy-ratings. The findings can be used in clinical research and healthcare settings to develop methods to compensate for impaired TPA and support DTM in PwDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ann-Christine Persson
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, 18288 Stockholm, Sweden; (M.L.); (M.M.)
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Danderyd University Hospital, 18288 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Gunnel Janeslätt
- Department of Public Health and Caring Sciences, Uppsala University, 75105 Uppsala, Sweden; or
- Center for Clinical Research in Dalarna, Box 712, 79129 Falun, Sweden
| | - Lena Dahlberg
- School of Health and Welfare, Dalarna University, 79188 Falun, Sweden;
- Aging Research Center, Karolinska Institutet & Stockholm University, 17165 Solna, Sweden
| | - Monika Löfgren
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, 18288 Stockholm, Sweden; (M.L.); (M.M.)
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Danderyd University Hospital, 18288 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marika Möller
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Danderyd Hospital, Karolinska Institutet, 18288 Stockholm, Sweden; (M.L.); (M.M.)
- Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Danderyd University Hospital, 18288 Stockholm, Sweden
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6
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Cui M, Peng C, Huang M, Chen Y. Electrophysiological Evidence for a Common Magnitude Representation of Spatiotemporal Information in Working Memory. Cereb Cortex 2022; 32:4068-4079. [PMID: 35024791 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhab466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2021] [Revised: 11/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Spatiotemporal interference has attracted increasing attention because it provides a window for studying the neural representation of magnitude in the brain. We aimed to identify the neural basis of spatiotemporal interference using a Kappa effect task in which two circles were presented in sequence with two time intervals and three space distances. Participants reproduced the time intervals while ignoring the space distance when electroencephalogram signals were recorded synchronously. The behavior results showed that production time increased with time interval and space distance. Offset of the time intervals elicited typical P2 and P3b components. Larger parietal P2 and P3b amplitudes were elicited by the combination of longer time intervals and longer space distances. The parietal P2 and P3b amplitudes were positively correlated with the production time, and the corresponding neural source was located in the parietal cortex. The results suggest that the parietal P2 and P3b index updates a common representation of spatiotemporal information in working memory, which provides electrophysiological evidence for the mechanisms underlying spatiotemporal interferences. Our study supports a theory of magnitude, in which different dimensions can be integrated into a common magnitude representation in a generalized magnitude system that is localized at the parietal cortex.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minghui Cui
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Time Psychology Research Center, Center of Studies for Psychology and Social Development, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Chunhua Peng
- Laboratory of Emotion and Mental Health, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing 402160, China
| | - Mei Huang
- Research Institute of Teacher Development, Faculty of College of Teacher Education, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
| | - Youguo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Time Psychology Research Center, Center of Studies for Psychology and Social Development, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
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7
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Chen Y, Peng C, Avitt A. A unifying Bayesian framework accounting for spatiotemporal interferences with a deceleration tendency. Vision Res 2021; 187:66-74. [PMID: 34217984 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2021.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2021] [Revised: 06/13/2021] [Accepted: 06/13/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
Spatial and temporal levels of information processing interfere with each other. The Kappa effect is a well-known spatiotemporal interference in which the estimated time between two lights increases as the distance between them increases, showing a deceleration tendency. A classical model attributes this interference to constant speeds and predicts a linear relation, whereas a slowness model attributes the interference to slow speeds and proposes that the tendency is due to the uncertainty of stimuli locations. This study integrated a unifying Bayesian framework with the classical model and argued that this tendency is the result of the Weber-Fechner law. This hypothesis was tested via two time discrimination tasks that manipulated the uncertainty of stimuli locations and the distance between stimuli. Experiment 1 showed that the estimated time was not modulated by the uncertainty of the stimuli locations. Experiment 2 revealed that the behavioral predictions made by the Bayesian model on logarithmic scales were more accurate than those made by the linear model. Our results suggest that the deceleration tendency in the Kappa effect is the result of the Weber-Fechner law.
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Affiliation(s)
- Youguo Chen
- Key Laboratory of Cognition and Personality (Ministry of Education), Center of Studies for Psychology and Social Development, Faculty of Psychology, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China.
| | - Chunhua Peng
- Laboratory of Emotion and Mental Health, Chongqing University of Arts and Sciences, Chongqing 402160, China
| | - Andrew Avitt
- College of International Studies, Southwest University, Chongqing 400715, China
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8
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Leboe-McGowan LC, Leboe-McGowan JP, Fortier J, Dowling EJ. Non-magnitude sources of bias on duration judgements for blank intervals: conceptual relatedness of interval markers reduces subjective interval duration. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2021; 86:209-233. [PMID: 33590297 DOI: 10.1007/s00426-021-01482-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
We report three experiments in which the events flanking a temporal interval were either related or unrelated, based on overlap in the letter identity of single letters (Experiment 1), in the conceptual congruency of color words and colored rectangles (Experiment 2), or in the conceptual congruency of sentence stems and their terminal words (Experiment 3). In all cases, we observed a bias for participants to judge the duration of temporal intervals as shorter when the flanking events were related. We draw an analogy between these temporal judgement distortions and those reported elsewhere (Alards-Tomalin et al. in J Exp Psychol Learn Mem Cogn 40(2):555-566, 2014) that revealed that the similarity in the relative magnitude of flanking events generate the same type of bias on duration judgements. The observation that non-magnitude dimensions of relatedness between flanking events can also bias duration judgements raise questions about the applicability of two influential theoretical frameworks for understanding the distorting effects that non-temporal stimulus dimensions can have on duration judgments, A Theory of Magnitude (Buetl and Walsh in Philos Trans R Soc B Biol Sci 12:1831-1840, 2009, Walsh in Trends Cogn Sci 7:483-488, 2003) and the Conceptual Metaphor Theory (e.g., Lakoff and Johnson in Philosophy in the flesh: the embodied mind and its challenge to western thought. Basic Books, New York, 1999). In our general discussion, we consider a number of alternative frameworks that may account for these findings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Launa C Leboe-McGowan
- Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, P430 Duff Roblin Bldg., Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada.
| | - Jason P Leboe-McGowan
- Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, P430 Duff Roblin Bldg., Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Janique Fortier
- Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, P430 Duff Roblin Bldg., Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Erin J Dowling
- Department of Psychology, University of Manitoba, P430 Duff Roblin Bldg., Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N2, Canada
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9
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Cona G, Wiener M, Scarpazza C. From ATOM to GradiATOM: Cortical gradients support time and space processing as revealed by a meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies. Neuroimage 2020; 224:117407. [PMID: 32992001 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2020.117407] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2019] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
According to the ATOM (A Theory Of Magnitude), formulated by Walsh more than fifteen years ago, there is a general system of magnitude in the brain that comprises regions, such as the parietal cortex, shared by space, time and other magnitudes. The present meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies used the Activation Likelihood Estimation (ALE) method in order to determine the set of regions commonly activated in space and time processing and to establish the neural activations specific to each magnitude domain. Following PRISMA guidelines, we included in the analysis a total of 112 and 114 experiments, exploring space and time processing, respectively. We clearly identified the presence of a system of brain regions commonly recruited in both space and time that includes: bilateral insula, the pre-supplementary motor area (pre-SMA), the right frontal operculum and the intraparietal sulci. These regions might be the best candidates to form the core magnitude neural system. Surprisingly, along each of these regions but the insula, ALE values progressed in a cortical gradient from time to space. The SMA exhibited an anterior-posterior gradient, with space activating more-anterior regions (i.e., pre-SMA) and time activating more-posterior regions (i.e., SMA-proper). Frontal and parietal regions showed a dorsal-ventral gradient: space is mediated by dorsal frontal and parietal regions, and time recruits ventral frontal and parietal regions. Our study supports but also expands the ATOM theory. Therefore, we here re-named it the 'GradiATOM' theory (Gradient Theory of Magnitude), proposing that gradient organization can facilitate the transformations and integrations of magnitude representations by allowing space- and time-related neural populations to interact with each other over minimal distances.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giorgia Cona
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy; Padova Neuroscience Center, University of Padua, Italy.
| | - Martin Wiener
- Department of Psychology, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA.
| | - Cristina Scarpazza
- Department of General Psychology, University of Padua, Via Venezia 8, 35131, Padua, Italy.
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10
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Fesce R. Subjectivity as an Emergent Property of Information Processing by Neuronal Networks. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:548071. [PMID: 33071734 PMCID: PMC7539658 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.548071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2020] [Accepted: 08/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, we examine subjectivity and consciousness as emergent properties of the computational complexity of information processing by the brain, rather than metaphysical phenomena. While Psychology concentrates on the emergent properties and Neurobiology examines the properties of the biological substrate, Neurophysiology and Cognitive Neuroscience link the two levels by investigating the mechanisms and processes by which the functions of the brain emerge from the anatomical, cellular and network properties of the nervous system. Our purpose here is not to locate the neural structures that sustain subjectivity or other psychic functions; rather, we examine the operating modes of neurons and neural circuits: they reveal an intrinsically relational quality; sensory elaboration itself proves to be relational and self-centred, necessarily associated with the vital, hedonic, emotional relevance of each experience and external cue, and intrinsically oriented to a behavioral interaction with the latter. The hippocampus adds to this self-centred relational perspective the capability of transforming the identification and the spatial location of objects into a contextualized representation of reality. Since the hippocampus is strongly interconnected with the archaic structures that evaluate vital and hedonic relevance and generate emotional responses, the contextualized information, emotionally colored, is transformed into a comprehensive individual experience. This way, a subjective, self-centred, affectively colored perspective arises in animals due to the intrinsic properties of neuronal circuits in the brain. We conclude that neuronal network processing is strongly characterized per se by a relational and self-centred (subjective) and emotionally colored, motivationally oriented (personal) perspective. The properties and features of neural processing discussed here constitute well-established knowledge in the neuroscientific community. Yet, from a layman’s perception, subjectivity still mysteriously arises in our brain due to the action of consciousness, and in epistemological and philosophical debates, the question often arises as to how consciousness may add the subjective and personal perspective to neural elaboration. The answer appears to be simple: it does not; subjectivity is already there, present ab initio in neuronal processing and not added a posteriori by some other “consciousness” function of unclear neural basis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Riccardo Fesce
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Humanitas University, Pieve Emanuele, Italy
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11
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Ding X, Feng N, He T, Cheng X, Fan Z. Can mental time lines co-exist in 3D space? Acta Psychol (Amst) 2020; 207:103084. [PMID: 32408141 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2020.103084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
A growing body of evidence suggested that time can be represented separately either on the lateral, sagittal or vertical axis. However, it is still not clear whether these mental time lines from different origins could co-exist, or compete with each other such that if one is selected, the others are inhibited? The present study addressed this question using a multi-dimensional free-choice paradigm with Mandarin speakers in three experiments. The results showed that significant spatial-temporal congruency effects were found both on the lateral and sagittal/vertical axes in the horizontal/coronal plane either in a temporal judgment relevant or irrelevant task. By contrast, the spatial-temporal congruency effects did not appear at the same time on the sagittal and vertical axes in the sagittal plane. These results supported that lateral mental time line could co-exist with the other two, while sagittal and vertical mental time lines could not co-exist with each other. This finding implied that the space-time mapping mechanism is different between the lateral axis and the sagittal and vertical axes, whereas it is the same for the latter two axes.
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12
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Complex sequential understanding through the awareness of spatial and temporal concepts. NAT MACH INTELL 2020. [DOI: 10.1038/s42256-020-0168-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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13
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Liefgreen A, Dalton MA, Maguire EA. Manipulating the temporal locus and content of mind-wandering. Conscious Cogn 2020; 79:102885. [PMID: 32036278 PMCID: PMC7077747 DOI: 10.1016/j.concog.2020.102885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 01/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
The human brain has a tendency to drift into the realm of internally-generated thoughts that are unbound by space and time. The term mind-wandering (MW) is often used describe such thoughts when they are perceptually decoupled. Evidence suggests that exposure to forward and backward illusory motion skews the temporal orientation of MW thoughts to either the future or past respectively. However, little is known about the impact of this manipulation on other features of MW. Here, using a novel experimental paradigm, we first confirmed that our illusory motion method facilitated the generation of MW thoughts congruent with the direction of motion. We then conducted content analyses which revealed that goal orientation and temporal distance were also significantly affected by the direction of illusory motion. We conclude that illusory motion may be an effective means of assaying MW and could help to elucidate this ubiquitous, and likely critical, component of cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice Liefgreen
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, London, UK
| | - Marshall A Dalton
- Brain and Mind Centre, Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| | - Eleanor A Maguire
- Wellcome Centre for Human Neuroimaging, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, University College London, London, UK.
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14
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Prisms for timing better: A review on application of prism adaptation on temporal domain. Cortex 2019; 119:583-593. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2018] [Revised: 09/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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15
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Temporal and spatial discounting are distinct in humans. Cognition 2019; 190:212-220. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2019.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2018] [Revised: 04/25/2019] [Accepted: 04/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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16
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Symbolism overshadows the effect of physical size in supra-second temporal illusions. Atten Percept Psychophys 2019; 81:2902-2916. [DOI: 10.3758/s13414-019-01748-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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17
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Huberle E, Brugger P. Altered time judgements highlight common mechanisms of time and space perception. Cogn Neuropsychol 2018; 35:458-470. [PMID: 30497331 DOI: 10.1080/02643294.2018.1549027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Space, numbers and time share similar processing mechanisms mediated by parietal cortex. In parallel to the spatial representation of numbers along a horizontal line, temporal information is mapped on a horizontal axis with short intervals (and the past) represented to the left of long intervals (and the future). Little is known about the representation of time in the presence of visuo-spatial deficits. We here report two experiments on the comparative judgment of time. Experiment 1 required patients with left-sided neglect to indicate which of two consecutively presented silent intervals was longer. Their judgments were better if the first interval was longer and they judged the first interval longer on trials in which the two intervals were equally long. These results were not present in right-hemispheric damaged patients without neglect and healthy controls. They are in line with a previously reported finding in a single patient with neglect, but not readily compatible with findings of neglect patients' comparative length judgments. In Experiment 2, healthy participants' performance on an identical task improved for trials with a first-longer interval after caloric vestibular stimulation (CVS) of the right ear with warm water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elisabeth Huberle
- a Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Neurology , University Hospital Zurich , Zürich , Switzerland
| | - Peter Brugger
- a Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Neurology , University Hospital Zurich , Zürich , Switzerland
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Anelli F, Avanzi S, Arzy S, Mancuso M, Frassinetti F. Effects of spatial attention on mental time travel in patients with neglect. Cortex 2018; 101:192-205. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2018.01.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2017] [Revised: 11/04/2017] [Accepted: 01/17/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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19
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On the interplay of visuospatial and audiotemporal dominance: Evidence from a multimodal kappa effect. Atten Percept Psychophys 2017; 80:535-552. [PMID: 29147960 DOI: 10.3758/s13414-017-1437-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
When participants judge multimodal audiovisual stimuli, the auditory information strongly dominates temporal judgments, whereas the visual information dominates spatial judgments. However, temporal judgments are not independent of spatial features. For example, in the kappa effect, the time interval between two marker stimuli appears longer when they originate from spatially distant sources rather than from the same source. We investigated the kappa effect for auditory markers presented with accompanying irrelevant visual stimuli. The spatial sources of the markers were varied such that they were either congruent or incongruent across modalities. In two experiments, we demonstrated that the spatial layout of the visual stimuli affected perceived auditory interval duration. This effect occurred although the visual stimuli were designated to be task-irrelevant for the duration reproduction task in Experiment 1, and even when the visual stimuli did not contain sufficient temporal information to perform a two-interval comparison task in Experiment 2. We conclude that the visual and auditory marker stimuli were integrated into a combined multisensory percept containing temporal as well as task-irrelevant spatial aspects of the stimulation. Through this multisensory integration process, visuospatial information affected even temporal judgments, which are typically dominated by the auditory modality.
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A neuroanatomical account of mental time travelling in schizophrenia: A meta-analysis of functional and structural neuroimaging data. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2017; 80:211-222. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2017.05.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2016] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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21
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Honma M, Murai Y, Shima S, Yotsumoto Y, Kuroda T, Futamura A, Shiromaru A, Murakami I, Kawamura M. Spatial distortion related to time compression during spatiotemporal production in Parkinson's disease. Neuropsychologia 2017; 102:61-69. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2017.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 06/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Magnani B, Musetti A. Innate and Cultural Spatial Time: A Developmental Perspective. Front Hum Neurosci 2017; 11:215. [PMID: 28515686 PMCID: PMC5413557 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2017.00215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2016] [Accepted: 04/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We reviewed literature to understand when a spatial map for time is available in the brain. We carefully defined the concepts of metrical map of time and of conceptual representation of time as the mental time line (MTL) in order to formulate our position. It is that both metrical map and conceptual representation of time are spatial in nature. The former should be innate, related to motor/implicit timing, it should represent all magnitudes with an analogic and bi-dimensional structure. The latter MTL should be learned, available at about 8-10 years-old and related to cognitive/explicit time. It should have uni-dimensional, linear and directional structure (left-to-right in Western culture). We bear the centrality of the development of number cognition, of time semantic concepts and of reading/writing habits for the development of ordinality and linearity of the MTL.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Alessandro Musetti
- Department of Humanities, Social Sciences and Cultural Industries, University of ParmaParma, Italy
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Retsa C, Naish P, Bekinschtein T, Bak TH. Temporal judgments in multi-sensory space. Neuropsychologia 2016; 88:101-112. [PMID: 26898372 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2016.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2015] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
To successfully interact with the environment requires a combination of stimulus recognition as well as localization in both space and time, with information moreover coming from multiple senses. Several studies have shown that auditory stimuli last subjectively longer than visual ones of equal duration. Recently, it has also been suggested that stimulus position affects duration perception. The present study investigated how lateral spatial presentation influences sub-second visual and auditory duration judgments. Five experiments were conducted using the duration discrimination paradigm, wherein two stimuli are presented sequentially and participants are asked to judge whether the second stimulus (comparison) is shorter or longer in duration than the first (standard). The number of stimulus positions and the way in which different modality trials were presented (mixed or blocked) varied. Additionally, comparisons were made either within or across modalities. No stable effect of location itself was found. However, in mixed modality experiments there was a clear over-estimation of duration in visual trials when the location of the comparison was different from the standard. This effect was reversed in the same location trials. Auditory judgments were unaffected by location manipulations. Based on these results, we propose the existence of an error-mechanism, according to which a specific duration is added in order to compensate for the loss of duration perception caused by spatial attention shifts between different locations. This mechanism is revealed in spatial and modality-mixed circumstances wherein its over-activation results in a systematic temporal bias.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chrysa Retsa
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK; The Laboratory for Investigative Neurophysiology (The LINE), Department of Clinical Neurosciences and Department of Radiology, University Hospital Center and University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
| | - Peter Naish
- The Sackler Centre for Consiousness Science University of Sussex, UK
| | | | - Thomas H Bak
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK
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Anelli F, Ciaramelli E, Arzy S, Frassinetti F. Prisms to travel in time: Investigation of time-space association through prismatic adaptation effect on mental time travel. Cognition 2016; 156:1-5. [PMID: 27467891 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2016.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2016] [Revised: 07/08/2016] [Accepted: 07/14/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that humans process time and space in similar veins. Humans represent time along a spatial continuum, and perception of temporal durations can be altered through manipulations of spatial attention by prismatic adaptation (PA). Here, we investigated whether PA-induced manipulations of spatial attention can also influence more conceptual aspects of time, such as humans' ability to travel mentally back and forward in time (mental time travel, MTT). Before and after leftward- and rightward-PA, participants projected themselves in the past, present or future time (i.e., self-projection), and, for each condition, determined whether a series of events were located in the past or the future with respect to that specific self-location in time (i.e., self-reference). The results demonstrated that leftward and rightward shifts of spatial attention facilitated recognition of past and future events, respectively. These findings suggest that spatial attention affects the temporal processing of the human self.
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Affiliation(s)
- Filomena Anelli
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri Hospital IRCCS, 46042 Castel Goffredo, Italy.
| | - Elisa Ciaramelli
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; Centro Studi e Ricerche in Neuroscienze Cognitive, 47023 Cesena, Italy
| | - Shahar Arzy
- Neuropsychiatry Lab, Faculty of Medicine, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical School, 91200 Jerusalem, Israel; Department of Neurology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, 91200 Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Francesca Frassinetti
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy; Fondazione Salvatore Maugeri Hospital IRCCS, 46042 Castel Goffredo, Italy
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26
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Perceptual versus motor spatiotemporal interactions in duration reproduction across two hands. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23365. [PMID: 27033555 PMCID: PMC4817069 DOI: 10.1038/srep23365] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2016] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
The possibility of spatiotemporal interactions in motor action that are comparable with the perceptual kappa effect was tested in the present study. In the kappa effect, the empty duration between two successive stimuli is overestimated when the spatial distance between these stimuli is increased. Indeed, when participants reproduced the standard (empty) duration, delivering two tactile stimuli to different hands resulted in a longer reproduced duration than delivering both stimuli to the same hand, regardless of how long the standard was. However, when a spatial factor during motor action (reproduction) was manipulated by letting participants use an identical hand or different hands for two button pushes reproducing the standard, the different-hand condition yielded a shorter reproduced duration than the identical-hand condition when the standard was 1000 ms or more. More specifically, this decrement in the reproduced duration grew linearly with the standard, suggesting that a given space increases the “rate” of an internal timer during motor action. Because each tick of the timer was accelerated, the total error causing an earlier push of the second button was increased with the standard. A pacemaker-counter model was adopted to explain the differences between the perceptual and the motor spatiotemporal interactions.
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Abstract
Multiple, action-based space representations are each based on the extent to which action is possible toward a specific sector of space, such as near/reachable and far/unreachable. Studies on tool-use revealed how the boundaries between these representations are dynamic. Space is not only multidimensional and dynamic, but it is also known for interacting with other dimensions of magnitude, such as time. However, whether time operates on similar action-driven multiple representations and whether it can be modulated by tool-use is yet unknown. To address these issues, healthy participants performed a time bisection task in two spatial positions (near and far space) before and after an active tool-use training, which consisted of performing goal-directed actions holding a tool with their right hand (Experiment 1). Before training, perceived stimuli duration was influenced by their spatial position defined by action. Hence, a dissociation emerged between near/reachable and far/unreachable space. Strikingly, this dissociation disappeared after the active tool-use training since temporal stimuli were now perceived as nearer. The remapping was not found when a passive tool-training was executed (Experiment 2) or when the active tool-training was performed with participants' left hand (Experiment 3). Moreover, no time remapping was observed following an equivalent active hand-training but without a tool (Experiment 4). Taken together, our findings reveal that time processing is based on action-driven multiple representations. The dynamic nature of these representations is demonstrated by the remapping of time, which is action- and effector-dependent.
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28
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Binetti N, Hagura N, Fadipe C, Tomassini A, Walsh V, Bestmann S. Binding space and time through action. Proc Biol Sci 2015; 282:rspb.2015.0381. [PMID: 25808892 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2015.0381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Space and time are intimately coupled dimensions in the human brain. Several lines of evidence suggest that space and time are processed by a shared analogue magnitude system. It has been proposed that actions are instrumental in establishing this shared magnitude system. Here we provide evidence in support of this hypothesis, by showing that the interaction between space and time is enhanced when magnitude information is acquired through action. Participants observed increases or decreases in the height of a visual bar (spatial magnitude) while judging whether a simultaneously presented sequence of acoustic tones had accelerated or decelerated (temporal magnitude). In one condition (Action), participants directly controlled the changes in bar height with a hand grip device, whereas in the other (No Action), changes in bar height were externally controlled but matched the spatial/temporal profile of the Action condition. The sign of changes in bar height biased the perceived rate of the tone sequences, where increases in bar height produced apparent increases in tone rate. This effect was amplified when the visual bar was actively controlled in the Action condition, and the strength of the interaction was scaled by the magnitude of the action. Subsequent experiments ruled out that this was simply explained by attentional factors, and additionally showed that a monotonic mapping is also required between grip force and bar height in order to bias the perception of the tones. These data provide support for an instrumental role of action in interfacing spatial and temporal quantities in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Binetti
- UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17-19 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK UCL Division of Psychology and Language Sciences, 26 Bedford Way, London WC1H 0AP, UK
| | - N Hagura
- UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17-19 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK
| | - C Fadipe
- UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17-19 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK
| | - A Tomassini
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, 33 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
| | - V Walsh
- UCL Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience, 17-19 Queen Square, London WC1N 3AR, UK
| | - S Bestmann
- Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL Institute of Neurology, University College London, 33 Queen Square, London WC1N 3BG, UK
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29
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Masson N, Pesenti M, Dormal V. Duration and numerical estimation in right brain-damaged patients with and without neglect: Lack of support for a mental time line. Br J Psychol 2015; 107:467-83. [DOI: 10.1111/bjop.12155] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Masson
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute and Institute of Neuroscience; Catholic University of Louvain; Louvain-la-Neuve Belgium
| | - Mauro Pesenti
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute and Institute of Neuroscience; Catholic University of Louvain; Louvain-la-Neuve Belgium
| | - Valérie Dormal
- Psychological Sciences Research Institute and Institute of Neuroscience; Catholic University of Louvain; Louvain-la-Neuve Belgium
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30
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Rektor I, Schachter SC, Arya R, Arzy S, Braakman H, Brodie MJ, Brugger P, Chang BS, Guekht A, Hermann B, Hesdorffer DC, Jones-Gotman M, Kanner AM, Garcia-Larrea L, Mareš P, Mula M, Neufeld M, Risse GL, Ryvlin P, Seeck M, Tomson T, Korczyn AD. Third International Congress on Epilepsy, Brain, and Mind: Part 2. Epilepsy Behav 2015; 50:138-59. [PMID: 26264466 DOI: 10.1016/j.yebeh.2015.07.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Epilepsy is both a disease of the brain and the mind. Here, we present the second of two papers with extended summaries of selected presentations of the Third International Congress on Epilepsy, Brain and Mind (April 3-5, 2014; Brno, Czech Republic). Humanistic, biologic, and therapeutic aspects of epilepsy, particularly those related to the mind, were discussed. The extended summaries provide current overviews of epilepsy, cognitive impairment, and treatment, including brain functional connectivity and functional organization; juvenile myoclonic epilepsy; cognitive problems in newly diagnosed epilepsy; SUDEP including studies on prevention and involvement of the serotoninergic system; aggression and antiepileptic drugs; body, mind, and brain, including pain, orientation, the "self-location", Gourmand syndrome, and obesity; euphoria, obsessions, and compulsions; and circumstantiality and psychiatric comorbidities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Rektor
- Masaryk University, Brno Epilepsy Center, St. Anne's Hospital and School of Medicine and Central European Institute of Technology (CEITEC), Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Steven C Schachter
- Consortia for Improving Medicine with Innovation and Technology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA.
| | - Ravindra Arya
- Comprehensive Epilepsy Center, Division of Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, USA
| | - Shahar Arzy
- Department of Neurology, Hadassah Hebrew University Medical Center, Jerusalem, Israel; The Faculty of Medicine, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Hilde Braakman
- Academic Center for Epileptology, Kempenhaeghe & Maastricht UMC, Sterkselseweg 65, 5591 VE Heeze, The Netherlands
| | | | - Peter Brugger
- Neuropsychology Unit, Department of Neurology, University Hospital Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Bernard S Chang
- Departments of Neurology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Alla Guekht
- Russian National Research Medical University, Moscow Research and Clinical Center for Neuropsychiatry, Moscow, Russia
| | - Bruce Hermann
- Department of Neurology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, WI, USA
| | - Dale C Hesdorffer
- Gertrude H. Sergievsky Center and Department of Epidemiology, Columbia University, NY, USA
| | - Marilyn Jones-Gotman
- Department of Neurology and Neurosurgery, Montreal Neurological Institute, McGill University, Montreal, Canada
| | - Andres M Kanner
- Department of Neurology, University of Miami, Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, USA
| | - Luis Garcia-Larrea
- NeuroPain Lab, Centre for Neuroscience of Lyon, Inserm U1028, Hôpital Neurologique, 59Bd Pinel 69003 Lyon, France
| | - Pavel Mareš
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marco Mula
- Epilepsy Group, Atkinson Morley Regional Neuroscience Centre, St George's Hospital & Institute of Medical and Biomedical Sciences, St George's University of London, London, UK
| | - Miri Neufeld
- EEG and Epilepsy Unit, Department of Neurology, Tel-Aviv Medical Center, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Philippe Ryvlin
- Department of Clinical Neurosciences, CHUV, Lausanne, Switzerland; TIGER, Lyon's Neuroscience Research Center, INSERM U1028, CNRS5292 Lyon, France
| | - Margitta Seeck
- Neurology Service, Hòpitaux Universitaires de Genève, Genève, Switzerland
| | - Torbjörn Tomson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Amos D Korczyn
- Sackler School of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat-Aviv, Israel
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Ding X, Cheng X, Fan Z, Liu H. Is elapsing time really recoded into spatial linear representation in working memory? Exp Psychol 2015; 62:11-9. [PMID: 25270562 DOI: 10.1027/1618-3169/a000269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
A growing body of evidence suggested that elapsing time is tightly associated with space in a specific way (e.g., Spatial Temporal Association of Response Codes or STARC effect). However, existing findings cannot justify a hypothesis that elapsing time is recoded directly into a spatial linear representation in working memory. The present study addresses this fundamental question by using three modified STARC-related working memory paradigms. In different experiments, participants were asked to give order judgment, order-irrelevant STM recognition judgment, or motor-related free-choice judgment, immediately after successive presentation of a set of disparate stimuli. Results show that responses to early stimuli were faster or more often with the left key and responses to late stimuli were faster or more often with the right key. These findings clearly support the hypothesis that elapsing time is directly and automatically recoded into a spatial linear representation in working memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xianfeng Ding
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, P.R. China School of Psychology, Central China Normal University (CCNU), Wuhan, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan, P.R. China
| | - Xiaorong Cheng
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, P.R. China School of Psychology, Central China Normal University (CCNU), Wuhan, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan, P.R. China
| | - Zhao Fan
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, P.R. China School of Psychology, Central China Normal University (CCNU), Wuhan, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan, P.R. China
| | - Huashan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, P.R. China School of Psychology, Central China Normal University (CCNU), Wuhan, P.R. China Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, Wuhan, P.R. China
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Abstract
We report the case of a patient with ischemic lesion of the left cerebellum, who showed specific deficits in processing past versus future tense of action verbs. These findings confirm, in the presence of cerebellar damage, previous results obtained with transcranial magnetic stimulation in healthy subjects and suggest a specificity of the left cerebellum for preparation of responses to the past tense of action verbs. As part of the procedural brain, the cerebellum could play a role in applying the linguistic rules for selection of morphemes typical of past and future tense formation.
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Cai ZG, Connell L. Space-time interdependence: evidence against asymmetric mapping between time and space. Cognition 2014; 136:268-81. [PMID: 25506776 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2014.11.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2012] [Revised: 11/03/2014] [Accepted: 11/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Time and space are intimately related, but what is the real nature of this relationship? Is time mapped metaphorically onto space such that effects are always asymmetric (i.e., space affects time more than time affects space)? Or do the two domains share a common representational format and have the ability to influence each other in a flexible manner (i.e., time can sometimes affect space more than vice versa)? In three experiments, we examined whether spatial representations from haptic perception, a modality of relatively low spatial acuity, would lead the effect of time on space to be substantially stronger than the effect of space on time. Participants touched (but could not see) physical sticks while listening to an auditory note, and then reproduced either the length of the stick or the duration of the note. Judgements of length were affected by concurrent stimulus duration, but not vice versa. When participants were allowed to see as well as touch the sticks, however, the higher acuity of visuohaptic perception caused the effects to converge so length and duration influenced each other to a similar extent. These findings run counter to the spatial metaphor account of time, and rather support the spatial representation account in which time and space share a common representational format and the directionality of space-time interaction depends on the perceptual acuity of the modality used to perceive space.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenguang G Cai
- Department of Experimental Psychology, University College London, United Kingdom; School of Psychology, University of Plymouth, United Kingdom; School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, United Kingdom.
| | - Louise Connell
- Department of Psychology, Lancaster University, United Kingdom; School of Psychological Sciences, University of Manchester, United Kingdom.
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Berkovich-Ohana A, Glicksohn J, Goldstein A. Studying the default mode and its mindfulness-induced changes using EEG functional connectivity. Soc Cogn Affect Neurosci 2014; 9:1616-24. [PMID: 24194576 PMCID: PMC4187278 DOI: 10.1093/scan/nst153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2012] [Revised: 08/29/2013] [Accepted: 09/23/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The default mode network (DMN) has been largely studied by imaging, but not yet by neurodynamics, using electroencephalography (EEG) functional connectivity (FC). mindfulness meditation (MM), a receptive, non-elaborative training is theorized to lower DMN activity. We explored: (i) the usefulness of EEG-FC for investigating the DMN and (ii) the MM-induced EEG-FC effects. To this end, three MM groups were compared with controls, employing EEG-FC (-MPC, mean phase coherence). Our results show that: (i) DMN activity was identified as reduced overall inter-hemispheric gamma MPC during the transition from resting state to a time production task and (ii) MM-induced a state increase in alpha MPC as well as a trait decrease in EEG-FC. The MM-induced EEG-FC decrease was irrespective of expertise or band. Specifically, there was a relative reduction in right theta MPC, and left alpha and gamma MPC. The left gamma MPC was negatively correlated with MM expertise, possibly related to lower internal verbalization. The trait lower gamma MPC supports the notion of MM-induced reduction in DMN activity, related with self-reference and mind-wandering. This report emphasizes the possibility of studying the DMN using EEG-FC as well as the importance of studying meditation in relation to it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aviva Berkovich-Ohana
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Department of Criminology, and Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900 Israel. The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Department of Criminology, and Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900 Israel.
| | - Joseph Glicksohn
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Department of Criminology, and Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900 Israel. The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Department of Criminology, and Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900 Israel
| | - Abraham Goldstein
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Department of Criminology, and Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900 Israel. The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900, Department of Neurobiology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Department of Criminology, and Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 52900 Israel
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Maniadakis M, Trahanias P. Time models and cognitive processes: a review. Front Neurorobot 2014; 8:7. [PMID: 24578690 PMCID: PMC3936574 DOI: 10.3389/fnbot.2014.00007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The sense of time is an essential capacity of humans, with a major role in many of the cognitive processes expressed in our daily lifes. So far, in cognitive science and robotics research, mental capacities have been investigated in a theoretical and modeling framework that largely neglects the flow of time. Only recently there has been a rather limited, but constantly increasing interest in the temporal aspects of cognition, integrating time into a range of different models of perceptuo-motor capacities. The current paper aims to review existing works in the field and suggest directions for fruitful future work. This is particularly important for the newly developed field of artificial temporal cognition that is expected to significantly contribute in the development of sophisticated artificial agents seamlessly integrated into human societies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michail Maniadakis
- Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas Heraklion, Greece
| | - Panos Trahanias
- Institute of Computer Science, Foundation for Research and Technology - Hellas Heraklion, Greece
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Berkovich-Ohana A, Dor-Ziderman Y, Glicksohn J, Goldstein A. Alterations in the sense of time, space, and body in the mindfulness-trained brain: a neurophenomenologically-guided MEG study. Front Psychol 2013; 4:912. [PMID: 24348455 PMCID: PMC3847819 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 11/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Meditation practice can lead to what have been referred to as “altered states of consciousness.”One of the phenomenological characteristics of these states is a joint alteration in the sense of time, space, and body. Here, we set out to study the unique experiences of alteration in the sense of time and space by collaborating with a select group of 12 long-term mindfulness meditation (MM) practitioners in a neurophenomenological setup, utilizing first-person data to guide the neural analyses. We hypothesized that the underlying neural activity accompanying alterations in the sense of time and space would be related to alterations in bodily processing. The participants were asked to volitionally bring about distinct states of “Timelessness” (outside time) and “Spacelessness” (outside space) while their brain activity was recorded by MEG. In order to rule out the involvement of attention, memory, or imagination, we used control states of “Then” (past) and “There” (another place). MEG sensors evidencing alterations in power values were identified, and the brain regions underlying these changes were estimated via spatial filtering (beamforming). Particularly, we searched for similar neural activity hypothesized to underlie both the state of “Timelessness” and “Spacelessness.” The results were mostly confined to the theta band, and showed that: (1) the “Then”/“There” overlap yielded activity in regions related to autobiographic memory and imagery (right posterior parietal lobule (PPL), right precentral/middle frontal gyrus (MFG), bilateral precuneus); (2) “Timelessness”/“Spacelessness” conditions overlapped in a different network, related to alterations in the sense of the body (posterior cingulate, right temporoparietal junction (TPJ), cerebellum); and (3) phenomenologically-guided neural analyses enabled us to dissociate different levels of alterations in the sense of the body. This study illustrates the utility of employing experienced contemplative practitioners within a neurophenomenological setup for scientifically characterizing a self-induced altered sense of time, space and body, as well as the importance of theta activity in relation with these altered states.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Yair Dor-Ziderman
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Joseph Glicksohn
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University Ramat Gan, Israel ; Department of Criminology, Bar-Ilan University Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Abraham Goldstein
- The Leslie and Susan Gonda (Goldschmied) Multidisciplinary Brain Research Center, Bar-Ilan University Ramat Gan, Israel ; Department of Psychology, Bar-Ilan University Ramat Gan, Israel
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The role of posterior parietal cortices on prismatic adaptation effects on the representation of time intervals. Neuropsychologia 2013; 51:2825-32. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2013.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2012] [Revised: 07/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Fabbri M, Cellini N, Martoni M, Tonetti L, Natale V. The mechanisms of space-time association: comparing motor and perceptual contributions in time reproduction. Cogn Sci 2013; 37:1228-50. [PMID: 23631355 DOI: 10.1111/cogs.12038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2012] [Revised: 09/09/2012] [Accepted: 09/20/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The spatial-temporal association indicates that time is represented spatially along a left-to-right line. It is unclear whether the spatial-temporal association is mainly related to a perceptual or a motor component. In addition, the spatial-temporal association is not consistently found using a time reproduction task. Our rationale for this finding is that, classically, a non-lateralized button for performing the task has been used. Using two lateralized response buttons, the aim of the study was to find a spatial-temporal association in a time reproduction task. To account for the perceptual component, reference and target stimuli were presented in different spaces through four experiments. In all experiments, a Spatial-Temporal Association of Response Codes (STEARC) effect was found and this effect was not modulated by the spatial position of both reference and target stimuli. The results suggested that the spatial-temporal association was mainly derived from the spatial information provided by response buttons, reflecting a motor but not visuospatial influence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Fabbri
- Department of Psychology, Second University of Naples
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Magnani B, Pavani F, Frassinetti F. Changing auditory time with prismatic goggles. Cognition 2012; 125:233-43. [PMID: 22863412 DOI: 10.1016/j.cognition.2012.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2011] [Revised: 06/05/2012] [Accepted: 07/03/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present study was to explore the spatial organization of auditory time and the effects of the manipulation of spatial attention on such a representation. In two experiments, we asked 28 adults to classify the duration of auditory stimuli as "short" or "long". Stimuli were tones of high or low pitch, delivered left or right of the participant. The time bisection task was performed either on right or left stimuli regardless of their pitch (Spatial experiment), or on high or low tones regardless of their location (Tonal experiment). Duration of left stimuli was underestimated relative to that of right stimuli, in the Spatial but not in the Tonal experiment, suggesting that a spatial representation of auditory time emerges selectively when spatial-encoding is enforced. Further, when we introduced spatial-attention shifts using the prismatic adaptation procedure, we found modulations of auditory time processing as a function of prismatic deviation, which correlated with the interparticipant adaptation effect. These novel findings reveal a spatial representation of auditory time, modulated by spatial attention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara Magnani
- Department of Psychology, University of Bologna, 40127 Bologna, Italy.
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Alards-Tomalin D, Leboe-McGowan LC, Mondor TA. Examining auditory kappa effects through manipulating intensity differences between sequential tones. PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2012; 77:480-91. [DOI: 10.1007/s00426-012-0438-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2012] [Accepted: 04/07/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Santiago
- Department of Experimental Psychology and Physiology of Behavior, University of Granada, Campus de Cartuja s ⁄ n, 18071-Grnada, Spain.
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Magnani B, Oliveri M, Mancuso G, Galante E, Frassinetti F. Time and spatial attention: Effects of prism adaptation on temporal deficits in brain damaged patients. Neuropsychologia 2011; 49:1016-1023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2010] [Revised: 12/06/2010] [Accepted: 12/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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How time modulates spatial responses. Cortex 2011; 47:148-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cortex.2009.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2009] [Revised: 09/08/2009] [Accepted: 09/14/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Wiener M, Turkeltaub PE, Coslett HB. Implicit timing activates the left inferior parietal cortex. Neuropsychologia 2010; 48:3967-71. [PMID: 20863842 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2010.09.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Revised: 08/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/14/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Coull and Nobre (2008) suggested that tasks that employ temporal cues might be divided on the basis of whether these cues are explicitly or implicitly processed. Furthermore, they suggested that implicit timing preferentially engages the left cerebral hemisphere. We tested this hypothesis by conducting a quantitative meta-analysis of eleven neuroimaging studies of implicit timing using the activation-likelihood estimation (ALE) algorithm (Turkeltaub, Eden, Jones, & Zeffiro, 2002). Our analysis revealed a single but robust cluster of activation-likelihood in the left inferior parietal cortex (supramarginal gyrus). This result is in accord with the hypothesis that the left hemisphere subserves implicit timing mechanisms. Furthermore, in conjunction with a previously reported meta-analysis of explicit timing tasks, our data support the claim that implicit and explicit timing are supported by at least partially distinct neural structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Wiener
- Department of Psychology, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6241, USA.
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Schütz AC, Morrone MC. Compression of time during smooth pursuit eye movements. Vision Res 2010; 50:2702-13. [PMID: 20691204 DOI: 10.1016/j.visres.2010.07.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2010] [Revised: 07/20/2010] [Accepted: 07/27/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Humans have a clear sense for the passage of time, but while implicit motor timing is quite accurate, explicit timing is prone to distortions particularly during action (Wenke & Haggard, 2009) and saccadic eye movements (Morrone, Ross, & Burr, 2005). Here, we investigated whether perceived duration is also affected by the execution of smooth pursuit eye movements, showing a compression of apparent duration similar to that observed during saccades. To this end, we presented two brief bars that marked intervals between 100 and 300 ms and asked subjects to judge their duration during fixation and pursuit. We found a compression of perceived duration for bars modulated in luminance contrast of about 32% and for bars modulated in chromatic contrast of 14% during pursuit compared to fixation. Interestingly, Weber ratios were similar for fixation and pursuit, if they are expressed as ratio between JND and perceived duration. This compression was constant for pursuit speeds from 7 to 14 deg/s and did not occur for intervals marked by auditory events. These results argue for a modality-specific component in the processing of temporal information.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander C Schütz
- Abteilung Allgemeine Psychologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität, Otto-Behaghel-Str. 10F, 35394 Giessen, Germany.
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Oliveri M, Bonnì S, Turriziani P, Koch G, Lo Gerfo E, Torriero S, Vicario CM, Petrosini L, Caltagirone C. Motor and linguistic linking of space and time in the cerebellum. PLoS One 2009; 4:e7933. [PMID: 19936216 PMCID: PMC2776278 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0007933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2009] [Accepted: 10/01/2009] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Recent literature documented the presence of spatial-temporal interactions in the human brain. The aim of the present study was to verify whether representation of past and future is also mapped onto spatial representations and whether the cerebellum may be a neural substrate for linking space and time in the linguistic domain. We asked whether processing of the tense of a verb is influenced by the space where response takes place and by the semantics of the verb. Principal Findings Responses to past tense were facilitated in the left space while responses to future tense were facilitated in the right space. Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) of the right cerebellum selectively slowed down responses to future tense of action verbs; rTMS of both cerebellar hemispheres decreased accuracy of responses to past tense in the left space and to future tense in the right space for non-verbs, and to future tense in the right space for state verbs. Conclusions The results suggest that representation of past and future is mapped onto spatial formats and that motor action could represent the link between spatial and temporal dimensions. Right cerebellar, left motor brain networks could be part of the prospective brain, whose primary function is to use past experiences to anticipate future events. Both cerebellar hemispheres could play a role in establishing the grammatical rules for verb conjugation.
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