Inhibition of large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channel by 2-methoxyestradiol in cultured vascular endothelial (HUV-EC-C) cells

Cycling matters: Sex hormone regulation of vascular potassium channels

Sex hormones and the reproductive cycle (estrus in rodents and menstrual in humans) have a known impact on arterial function. In spite of this, sex hormones and the estrus/menstrual cycle are often neglected experimental factors in vascular basic preclinical scientific research. Recent research by our own laboratory indicates that cyclical changes in serum concentrations of sex -hormones across the rat estrus cycle, primary estradiol, have significant consequences for the subcellular trafficking and function of KV. Vascular potassium channels, including KV, are essential components of vascular reactivity. Our study represents a small part of a growing field of literature aimed at determining the role of sex hormones in regulating arterial ion channel function. This review covers key findings describing the current understanding of sex hormone regulation of vascular potassium channels, with a focus on KV channels. Further, we highlight areas of research where the estrus cycle should be considered in future studies to determine the consequences of physiological oscillations in concentrations of sex hormones on vascular potassium channel function.

Rapid estrogen actions on ion channels: A survey in search for mechanisms

A survey of nearly two hundred reports shows that rapid estrogenic actions can be detected across a range of kinds of estrogens, a range of doses, on a wide range of tissue, cell and ion channel types. Striking is the fact that preparations of estrogenic agents that do not permeate the cell membrane almost always mimic the actions of the estrogenic agents that do permeate the membrane. All kinds of estrogens, ranging from natural ones, through receptor modulators, endocrine disruptors, phytoestrogens, agonists, and antagonists to novel G-1 and STX, have been reported to be effective. For actions on specific types of ion channels, the possibility of opposing actions, in different cases, is the rule, not the exception. With this variety there is no single, specific action mechanism for estrogens per se, although in some cases estrogens can act directly or via some signaling pathways to affect ion channels. We infer that estrogens can bind a large number of substrates/receptors at the membrane surface. As against the variety of subsequent routes of action, this initial step of the estrogen's binding action is the key.

SERCA, complex I of the respiratory chain and ATP-synthase inhibition are involved in pleiotropic effects of NS1619 on endothelial cells

A large conductance potassium (BKCa) channel opener, NS1619 (1,3-dihydro-1- [2-hydroxy-5-(trifluoromethyl) phenyl]-5-(trifluoromethyl)-2H-benzimidazole-2-one), is well known for its protective effects against ischemia-reperfusion injury; however, the exact mode of its action remains unclear. The aim of this study was to characterize the effect of NS1619 on endothelial cells. The endothelial cell line EA.hy926, guinea pig hearts and submitochondrial particles isolated from the heart were used. In the isolated guinea pig hearts, which were perfused using the Langendorff technique, NS1619 caused a dose-dependent increase in coronary flow that was inhibited by L-NAME. In EA.hy926 cells, NS1619 also caused a dose-dependent increase in the intracellular calcium ion concentration [Ca(2+)]i, as measured using the FURA-2 fluorescent probe. Moreover, NS1619 decreased the oxygen consumption rate in EA.hy926 cells, as assessed using a Clark-type oxygen electrode. However, when NS1619 was applied in the presence of oligomycin, the oxygen consumption increased. NS1619 also decreased the mitochondrial membrane potential, as measured using a JC-1 fluorescent probe in the presence and absence of oligomycin. Additionally, the application of NS1619 to submitochondrial particles inhibited ATP synthase. In summary, NS1619 has pleiotropic actions on EA.hy926 cells and acts not only as an opener of the BKCa channel in EA.hy926 cells but also as an inhibitor of the respiratory chain component, sarcoplasmic reticulum ATPase, which leads to the release of Ca(2+) from the endoplasmic reticulum. Furthermore, NS1619 has the oligomycin-like property of inhibiting mitochondrial ATP synthase.

Peptide toxins and small-molecule blockers of BK channels

Large conductance, Ca(2+)-activated potassium (BK) channels play important roles in the regulation of neuronal excitability and the control of smooth muscle contractions. BK channels can be activated by changes in both the membrane potential and intracellular Ca(2+) concentrations. Here, we provide an overview of the structural and pharmacological properties of BK channel blockers. First, the properties of different venom peptide toxins from scorpions and snakes are described, with a focus on their characteristic structural motifs, including their disulfide bond formation pattern, the binding interface between the toxin and BK channel, and the functional consequence of the blockage of BK channels by these toxins. Then, some representative non-peptide blockers of BK channels are also described, including their molecular formula and pharmacological effects on BK channels. The detailed categorization and descriptions of these BK channel blockers will provide mechanistic insights into the blockade of BK channels. The structures of peptide toxins and non-peptide compounds could provide templates for the design of new channel blockers, and facilitate the optimization of lead compounds for further therapeutic applications in neurological disorders or cardiovascular diseases.

Potassium channels: a review of broadening therapeutic possibilities for neurological diseases

Potassium (K(+)) channels are encoded by approximately 80 genes in mammals. They are expressed in many tissues and have diverse physiological roles. Human K(+) channels are divided mainly into calcium (Ca(2+))-activated (K(Ca)), inward-rectifying (K(IR)), two-pore (K(2P)), and voltage-gated (K(v)) channels. The K(v) channels form the largest family, with approximately 40 genes. Owing to their involvement in many diseases and their specific expression patterns and physiological roles, K(+) channels present an attractive target for the development of new therapies. This review summarizes the physiological and pathophysiological roles of various potassium channels with respect to their therapeutic potential for disorders with a disturbed neuronal excitability such as epilepsy, migraine, neuropathic pain, or stroke.

Effects of preeclamptic plasma on potassium currents of human umbilical vein endothelial cells

Endothelial cell (EC) dysfunction in preeclampsia (PE) may be mediated by humoral factors secreted by placenta, thereby affecting the EC vasoactive compound production. Possible targets of these factors include potassium channels, which are important in EC membrane potential control, calcium influx, and vasoactive compound release. Alterations in potassium channel function may thus contribute to the pathogenesis of PE. The present study compared the effects of 10% plasma from PE, normal pregnant (NP), or nonpregnant women (NS) on potassium currents of human umbilical vein ECs (HUVECs), using whole-cell patch clamp technique, with HUVECs in conventional culture medium (10% fetal bovine serum) as controls. Cells of all groups were similar in morphology and whole-cell capacitance. The fraction of cells with inward rectifier potassium channel (IRK) current in PE plasma (41.2%) was significantly lower than those in NP and NS plasmas (76.9% and 59.1%, respectively), although the IRK current density was similar among groups. The outward current components included the calcium-sensitive potassium channels (K(Ca)) and were partially blocked by 100 nmol/L apamin and 200 nmol/L iberiotoxin. The fraction with outward current in PE plasma (100%) was significantly higher than those in NP and NS plasmas (76.9% and 81.8%). The findings indicate inhibition of IRK expression by PE plasma in HUVEC culture, while K(Ca) expression may be facilitated probably as a compensatory response to diminished IRK. These data suggest that potassium channels may be a target of the pathogenic factor/factors in the plasma of patients with PE and may play roles in the pathogenesis of this condition.

Limits of isolation and culture: intact vascular endothelium and BKCa

The potential physiological role of plasmalemmal large-conductance calcium-activated potassium channels (BKCa) in vascular endothelial cells is controversial. Studies of freshly isolated and cultured vascular endothelial cells provide disparate results, both supporting and refuting a role for BKCa in endothelial function. Most studies using freshly isolated, intact, healthy arteries provide little support for a physiological role for BKCa in the endothelium, although recent work suggests that this may not be the case in diseased vessels. In isolated and cultured vascular endothelial cells, the autocrine action of growth factors, hormones, and vasoactive substances results in phenotypic drift. Such an induced heterogeneity is likely a primary factor accounting for the apparent differences, and often enhanced BKCa expression and function, in isolated and cultured vascular endothelial cells. In a similar manner, heterogeneity in endothelial BKCa expression and function in intact arteries may be representative of normal and disease states, BKCa being absent in normal intact artery endothelium and upregulated in disease where dysfunction induces signals that alter channel expression and function. Indeed, in some intact vessels, there is evidence for the presence of BKCa, such as mRNA and/or specific BK subunits, an observation that is consistent with the potential for rapid upregulation, as may occur in disease. This perspective proposes that the disparity in the results obtained for BKCa expression and function from freshly isolated and cultured vascular endothelial cells is largely due to variability in experimental conditions and, furthermore, that the expression of BKCa in intact artery endothelium is primarily associated with disease. Although answers to physiologically relevant questions may only be available in atypical physiological conditions, such as those of isolation and culture, the limitations of these methods require open and objective recognition.

APE1/Ref-1 promotes the effect of angiotensin II on Ca2+ -activated K+ channel in human endothelial cells via suppression of NADPH oxidase

The effects of angiotensin II (Ang II) on whole-cell large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) currents was investigated in control and Apurinic/apyrimidinic endonuclease1/redox factor 1 (APE1/Ref-1)-overexpressing human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs). Ang II blocked the BK(Ca) current in a dose-dependent fashion, and this inhibition was greater in APE1/Ref-1-overexpressing HUVECs than in control HUVECs (half-inhibition values of 102.81+/-9.54 nM and 11.34+/-0.39 nM in control and APE1/Ref-1-overexpressing HUVECs, respectively). Pretreatment with the NADPH oxidase inhibitor diphenyleneiodonium (DPI) or knock down of NADPH oxidase (p22 phox) using siRNA increased the inhibitory effect of Ang II on the BK(Ca) currents, similar to the effect of APE1/Ref-1 overexpression. In addition, application of Ang II increased the superoxide and hydrogen peroxide levels in the control HUVECs but not in APE1/Ref-1-overexpressing HUVECs. Furthermore, direct application of hydrogen peroxide increased BK(Ca) channel activity. Finally, the inhibitory effect of Ang II on the BK(Ca) current was blocked by an antagonist of the Ang II type 1 (AT(1)) receptor in both control and APE1/Ref-1-overexpressing HUVECs. From these results, we conclude that the inhibitory effect of Ang II on BK(Ca) channel function is NADPH oxidase-dependent and may be promoted by APE1/Ref-1.

Effects of 17beta-estradiol on neuronal cell excitability and neurotransmission in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of rat

17beta-Estradiol receptors have been found in several brain nuclei including the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of mammalian species. The SCN is believed to act as brain clock regulating circadian and circannual biological rhythms, such as body temperature, sleep, and mood. Here, we examined whether 17beta-estradiol (E2) could affect cell excitability and synaptic transmission in the SCN. Bath application of E2 (0.03-3 microM) increased the spontaneous firing frequency and depolarized cell membrane of the SCN neurons significantly. Furthermore, E2 (0.03-3 microM) increased (by about 25-150% of control) frequency of the miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents. Amplitude of the evoked excitatory postsynaptic currents was enhanced (by about 32% of control) after exposure to 1 microM E2. The paired-pulse ratio was reduced by E2. These effects were prevented by the estrogen receptor antagonist, ICI 182780. Exposure to the biologically inactive 17alpha-estradiol did not cause any significant changes in the parameters mentioned above. These findings are in favor of an implication of estrogen in modulation of neuronal activity in SCN and possibly regulating circadian rhythms.

Vascular large conductance calcium-activated potassium channels: functional role and therapeutic potential

Large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BK Ca or maxiK channels) are expressed in different cell types. They play an essential role in the regulation of various cell functions. In particular, BK Ca channels have been extensively studied in vascular smooth muscle cells, where they contribute to the control of vascular tone. They facilitate the feedback regulation against the rise of intracellular Ca2+, membrane depolarization and vasoconstriction. BK Ca channels promote a K+ outward current and lead to membrane hyperpolarization. In endothelial cells expression and function of BK Ca channels play an important role in the regulation of the vascular smooth muscle activity. Endothelial BK Ca channels modulate the biosyntheses and release of various vasoactive modulators and regulate the membrane potential. Because of their regulatory role in vascular tone, endothelial BK Ca channels have been suggested as therapeutic targets for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases. Hypertension, atherosclerosis, and diabetes are associated with altered current amplitude, open probability, and Ca2+-sensing of BK Ca channels. The properties of BK Ca channels and their role in endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells would address them as potential therapeutic targets. Further studies are necessary to identify the detailed molecular mechanisms of action and to investigate selective BK Ca channels openers as possible therapeutic agents for clinical use.

Carbon monoxide stimulates the Ca2(+)-activated big conductance k channels in cultured human endothelial cells

We used the whole-cell patch-clamp technique to study K channels in the human umbilical vein endothelial cells and identified a 201 pS K channel, which was blocked by tetraethylammonium and iberiotoxin but not by TRAM34 and apamin. This suggests that the Ca(2+)-activated big-conductance K channel (BK) is expressed in endothelial cells. Application of carbon monoxide (CO) or tricarbonylchloro(glycinato)ruthenium(II), a water soluble CO donor, stimulated the BK channels. Moreover, application of hemin, a substrate of heme oxygenase, mimicked the effect of CO and increased the BK channel activity. The stimulatory effect of hemin was significantly diminished by tin mesoporphyrin, an inhibitor of heme oxygenase. To determine whether the stimulatory effect of CO on the BK channel was mediated by NO and the cGMP-dependent pathway, we examined the effect of CO on BK channels in cells treated with, N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, 1H(1,2,4)oxadiazolo(4,3-a)quinoxalin-1-one, an inhibitor of soluble guanylate cyclase, or KT5823, an inhibitor of protein kinase G. Addition of either diethylamine NONOate or sodium nitroprusside significantly increased BK channel activity. Inhibition of endogenous NO synthesis with N(G)-nitro-l-arginine methyl ester, blocking soluble guanylate cyclase or protein kinase G, delayed but did not prevent the CO-induced activation of BK channels. Finally, application of an antioxidant agent, ebselen, had no effect on CO-mediated stimulation of BK channels in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. We conclude that BK channels are expressed in human umbilical vein endothelial cells and that they are activated by both CO and NO. CO activates BK channels directly, as well as via a mechanism involving NO or the cGMP-dependent pathway.

2-methoxyestradiol induces apoptosis and cell cycle arrest in human chondrosarcoma cells

2-Methoxyestradiol (2ME) is an endogenous metabolite with estrogen receptor-independent anti-tumor activity. The current study seeks to determine the mechanism of anti-tumor activity of 2ME on human chondrosarcoma. 2ME caused a time- and dose-dependent cytotoxity in chondrosarcoma cells, while primary chondrocytes were minimally affected. Cells accumulated in G0/G1 phase in response to 2ME and DAPI stain indicated an induction of apoptosis. Bax, Cytochrome C, and Caspase-3 protein expression were increased, while p53 expression was decreased. A higher Bax/Bcl-2 ratio followed 2ME treatment. 2ME has a potentially promising role as a systemic therapy of chondrosarcoma when the mechanism of action is better delineated.

Voltage-dependent K+ channel acts as sex steroid sensor in endocrine cells of the human ovary

Molecular targets of rapid non-genomic steroid actions are not well known compared to those of the classical transcription pathway, but ion channels have recently been identified to be steroid-sensitive. Especially, in the ovary, the very organ producing high amounts of sex steroids, their rapid actions are not well examined. We now identified a yet unknown target for sex steroids, a voltage-dependent K+ channel (Kv4.2) that contributes to a transient outward K+ current (I(A)) in human granulosa cells (GCs). Sex steroid hormones at concentrations typical for the ovary (1 microM) blocked Kv4.2 thereby attenuating I(A) by about 25% within seconds. We also found both Kv4.2 (KCND2) mRNA and protein in endocrine cells of the human and rhesus macaque ovary, emphasizing the physiological relevance of this channel. Therefore, we propose a role as fast-responding steroid sensor for the Kv4.2 channel. The direct regulation of K+ channel activity by sex steroids might represent a yet unknown mechanism of rapid steroid action in close proximity to the site of steroid production in the primate ovary. Our data might also be important for Kv4 channels in the brain and the cardiovascular system where rapid steroid effects are discussed in the context of prevention of cell death.

Stretch-stimulated activity of large conductance calcium-activated potassium channels in human retinal pigment epithelial cells

AIM

The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of membrane stretch on the activity of BK(Ca) channels and determine whether change in BK(Ca)-channel activity induced by membrane stretch can be altered in the presence of riluzole.

METHODS

The effect and mechanisms of membrane stretch on the activity of large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) (BK(Ca)) channels in human retinal pigment epithelial (RPE) cells were investigated using the patch-clamp technique.

RESULTS

In cell-attached patches, an increase in BK(Ca)-channel activity was induced by membrane stretch, which is mainly mediated by the increase in the number of long-lived openings. With inside-out patches, application of pipette suction did not modify single-channel conductance of BK(Ca) channels; however, it did enhance the channel activity. Membrane stretch-induced channel activity was found to be independent of the level of intracellular Ca(2+). Membrane stretch also potentiated riluzole-stimulated BK(Ca)-channel activity.

CONCLUSIONS

BK(Ca) channel can be stimulated by membrane stretch in human RPE cells. During an increase in tensile strength of RPE, the BK(Ca) channel might exert a protective action against deleterious tension by promoting a hyperpolarizing outflow that forces the cell to rest.

Large-conductance, calcium-activated potassium channels: structural and functional implications

The large-conductance, calcium-activated potassium channels (BK, also termed BK(Ca), Slo, or MaxiK) distributed in both excitable and non-excitable cells are involved in many cellular functions such as action potential repolarization; neuronal excitability; neurotransmitter release; hormone secretion; tuning of cochlear hair cells; innate immunity; and modulation of the tone of vascular, airway, uterine, gastrointestinal, and urinary bladder smooth muscle tissues. Because of their high conductance, activation of BK channels has a strong effect on membrane potential. BK channels differ from all other potassium (K(+)) channels due to their high sensitivity to both intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) concentrations and voltage. These features make BK channels ideal negative feedback regulators in many cell types by decreasing voltage-dependent Ca(2+) entry through membrane potential hyperpolarization. The current review aims to give a comprehensive understanding of the structure and molecular biology of BK channels and their relevance to various pathophysiological conditions. The review will also focus on the therapeutic potential and pharmacology of the various BK channel activators and blockers.

Caveolae Targeting and Regulation of Large Conductance Ca2+-activated K+ Channels in Vascular Endothelial Cells

The vascular endothelium is richly endowed with caveolae, which are specialized membrane microdomains that facilitate the integration of specific cellular signal transduction processes. We found that the large conductance Ca(2+)-activated K+ (BK) channels are associated with caveolin-1 in bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAECs). OptiPrep gradient cell fractionation demonstrated that BK channels were concentrated in the caveolae-rich fraction in BAECs. Immunofluorescence imaging showed co-localization of caveolin-1 and BK channels in the BAEC membrane. Immunoprecipitation and glutathione S-transferase pull-down assay results indicated that caveolin-1 and BK channels are physically associated. However, whole cell patch clamp recordings could not detect BK (iberiotoxin-sensitive) currents in cultured BAECs under baseline conditions, even though the presence of BK mRNA and protein expression was confirmed by reverse transcription-PCR and Western blots. Cholesterol depletion redistributed the BK channels to non-caveolar fractions of BAECs, resulting in BK channel activation (7.3 +/- 1.6 pA/picofarad (pF), n = 5). BK currents were also activated by isoproterenol (ISO, 1 microM, 6.9 +/- 2.4 pA/pF, n = 6). Inclusion of a caveolin-1 scaffolding domain peptide (10 microM) in the pipette solution completely abrogated the effects of ISO on BK channel activation, whereas inclusion of the scrambled control peptide (10 microM) did not inhibit the ISO effects. We have also found that caveolin-1 knockdown by small interference RNA activated BK currents (5.3 +/- 1.4 pA/pF, n = 6). We conclude that: 1) BK channels are targeted to caveolae microdomains in vascular endothelial cells; 2) caveolin-1 interacts with BK channels and exerts a negative regulatory effect on channel functions; and 3) BK channels are inactive under control conditions but can be activated by cholesterol depletion, knockdown of caveolin-1 expression, or ISO stimulation. These novel findings may have important implications for the role of BK channels in the regulation of endothelial function.

Inhibitory action of ICI-182,780, an estrogen receptor antagonist, on BK(Ca) channel activity in cultured endothelial cells of human coronary artery

ICI-182,780 is known to be a selective inhibitor of the intracellular estrogen receptors. The effect of ICI-182,780 on ion currents was studied in cultured endothelial cells of human coronary artery. In whole-cell current recordings, ICI-182,780 reversibly decreased the amplitude of K(+) outward currents. The decrease in outward current caused by ICI-182,780 could be counteracted by further application of magnolol or nordihydroguaiaretic acid, yet not by 17beta-estradiol. Under current-clamp condition, ICI-182,780 (3microM) depolarized the membrane potentials of the cells, and magnolol (10 microM) or nordihydroguaiaretic acid (10 microM) reversed ICI-182,780-induced depolarization. In inside-out patches, ICI-182,780 added to the bath did not alter single-channel conductance of large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated K(+) channels (BK(Ca) channels), but decreased their open probability. ICI-182,780 reduced channel activity in a concentration-dependent manner with an IC(50) value of 3 microM. After BK(Ca) channel activity was suppressed by 2-methoxyestradiol (3 microM), subsequent application of ICI-182,780 (3 microM) did not further reduce the channel activity. The application of ICI-182,780 shifted the activation curve of BK(Ca) channels to positive potentials. Its decrease in the open probability primarily involved a reduction in channel open duration. ICI-182,780 also suppressed the proliferation of these endothelial cells with an IC(50) value of 2 microM. However, in coronary smooth muscle cells, a bell-shaped concentration-response curve for the ICI-182,780 effect on BK(Ca) channel activity was observed. This study provides evidence that ICI-182,780 can inhibit BK(Ca) channels in vascular endothelial cells in a mechanism unlikely to be linked to its anti-estrogen activity. The inhibitory effects on these channels may partly contribute to the underlying mechanisms by which ICI-182,780 affects endothelial function.

Behavior of nonselective cation channels and large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels induced by dynamic changes in membrane stretch in cultured smooth muscle cells of human coronary artery

INTRODUCTION

The effects of membrane stretch on ion channels were investigated in cultured smooth muscle cells of human coronary artery.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In the cell-attached configuration, membrane stretch with negative pressure induced two types of stretch-activated (SA) ion channels: a nonselective cation channel and a large-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ (BK(Ca)) channel. The single-channel conductances of SA cation and BK(Ca) channels were 26 and 203 pS, respectively. To elucidate the mechanism of activation of these SA channels and to minimize mechanical disruption, a sinusoidal change in pipette pressure was applied to the on-cell membrane patch. During dynamic changes in pipette pressure, increases in SA cation channel activity was found to coincide with increases in BK(Ca) channel activity. In the continued presence of cyclic stretch, the activity of SA cation channels gradually diminished. However, after termination of cyclic stretch, BK(Ca) channel activity was greatly enhanced, but the activity of SA cation channels disappeared.

CONCLUSION

This study is the first to demonstrate that the behavior of SA cation and BK(Ca) channels in coronary smooth muscle cells is differentially susceptible to dynamic changes in membrane tension.