Intrinsic obstruction in pulmonary venous drainage pathway is associated with poor surgical outcomes in patients with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection

Percutaneous Embolization of No Ligated Vertical Veins After Total Anomalous Pulmonary Vein Return Operation and Risk Factors for Its Persistence

BACKGROUND

The vertical vein (VV) ligation during the total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) correction is still controversial. Our study aimed to define the potential risk factors for VV persistence and their percutaneous occlusion.

METHODS

The retrospective cohort study included 40 patients (26 males) with TAPVR treated at the tertiary referral center from 2005 to 2024.

RESULTS

The average days of age at diagnosis was two (IQR 1-8). Complex congenital heart disease with TAPVR was diagnosed in eight patients. A supracardiac type of TAPVR was found in 47% of them. The patients underwent the operation on their eighth day of life (IQR 5-57). The follow-up period was 32 months (IQR 8-99). The early postoperative mortality rate was 17.5%, significantly frequent in the patients' group with combined CHD (p = 0.002). Four were reoperated on-three due to a postoperative obstruction between the pulmonary venous confluence and the left atrium (LA), while in one patient, a redirection of the VCI was performed. Four patients, aged 12.3 on average (IQR 8.9-14.7), underwent vertical vein embolization. All patients achieved complete occlusion with AVP2. The LA diameter Z score was lower than -4, an increased risk for VV persistence of almost 19 times (OR 18.6, 95% CI 1.6-216.0).

CONCLUSIONS

We found that an LA diameter Z score of lower than -4 was a major risk factor for VV persistence. Percutaneous VV embolization is a safe and effective procedure in adolescents.

Assessing the risk of reoperation for mild pulmonary vein obstruction post-TAPVC repair: a retrospective cohort study

Objective

This study investigates the impact of mild pulmonary vein obstruction, detected via echocardiography before hospital discharge, on the likelihood of reoperation in patients who have undergone repair for Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection (TAPVC).

Method

Utilizing a single-center, retrospective cohort approach, we analyzed 38 cases from October 2017 to December 2023, excluding patients with functionally univentricular circulations or atrial isomerism. Our primary outcome was the necessity for reoperation within one year due to anatomical issues related to the initial TAPVC repair. Mild obstruction was defined as a pulmonary vein flow velocity ≥1.2 m/s.

Result

Our findings revealed that 31.6% of patients exhibited pre-discharge mild obstruction. During the median follow-up of 10 months, reoperations were notably higher in the mild obstruction group compared to the normal group, with a significant association between pre-discharge mild obstruction and increased risk of reoperation. Specifically, in the fully adjusted model, mild obstruction was linked to a 13.9-fold increased risk of reoperation.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that a pre-discharge echocardiography Doppler velocity threshold of 1.2 m/s could serve as a critical predictor for reoperation, emphasizing the need for targeted follow-up strategies for at-risk patients.

Cardiac-type total anomalous pulmonary venous return is not benign

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to investigate the association between morphological variation and postsurgical pulmonary vein (PV) stenosis (PPVS) in patients with cardiac total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC).

METHODS

This single-center, retrospective study included 168 pediatric patients who underwent surgical repair of cardiac TAPVC from 2013 to 2019 (connection to the coronary sinus [CS], n = 136; connection directly to the right atrium [RA], n = 32). Three-dimensional computed tomography modeling and geometric analysis were performed to investigate the morphological features; their relevance to the PPVS was examined.

RESULTS

The connection type had no association with PPVS (CS type: 18% vs right atrial type: 19%; P = .89) but there was a higher incidence of PPVS in patients with a single PV orifice than > 1 orifice (P < .001). Confluence-to-total PV area ratio (hazard ratio, 4.78, 95% CI, 1.86-12.32; P = .001) and length of drainage route (hazard ratio, 1.22; 95% CI, 1.14-1.31; P < .001) had a 4- and 1-fold increase in the risk for PPVS in the CS type after adjustment for age and preoperative pulmonary venous obstruction. In the right atrial type, those with anomalous PV return to the RA roof were more likely to develop PPVS than to the posterior wall of the RA (P < .001).

CONCLUSIONS

The number of inter-junction PV orifice correlated with PPVS development in cardiac TAPVC. The confluence-to-total PV ratio, length of drainage route, and anomalous PV return to the RA roof are important predictors for PPVS. Morphological subcategorization in this clinical setting can potentially assist in surgical decision-making.

Echocardiographic evaluation of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection: Comparison of obstructed and unobstructed type

This study aims to compare the differences between obstructed and unobstructed total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC) using echocardiography, and to evaluate the clinical and echocardiographic parameters associated with pulmonary venous obstruction (PVO).We conducted a retrospective study of 70 patients with TAPVC between 2014 and 2019. The morphologic and hemodynamic echocardiographic parameters of patients were observed and measured, and the parameters between obstructed and unobstructed TAPVC were compared. The clinical and echocardiographic parameter differences between the two groups were used for ROC curve analysis.Obstructed TAPVC was found in 30 (42.9%) of 70 patients. Between obstructed and unobstructed TAPVC, there were significant differences in atrial septal defect size, pulmonary artery maximum velocity (PA Vmax ), peak E velocity of mitral valve, left ventricular fractional shortening, left ventricular ejection fraction, stroke volume and the incidence of patent ductus arteriosus, but there was no significant difference in birth weight. The first diagnosis age of obstructed TAPVC was earlier than unobstructed type. The ROC curve analysis for the first diagnosis age showed the sensitivity and specificity were 76.7%, 80% respectively. The ROC curve analysis for the PA Vmax showed the sensitivity and specificity were 88.5%, 67.6% respectively.Patients with TAPVC had a high incidence of PVO. The presence of PVO can affect the size of atrial septal defect and the closure of the ductus arteriosus, cause significant changes in PA Vmax, peak E velocity of mitral valve, left ventricular fractional shortening, left ventricular ejection fraction, stroke volume, lead to earlier symptoms and earlier first diagnosis age. The first diagnosis age and PA Vmax were excellent values since they associated with PVO.

Clinical Nomogram for Predicting the Prognosis of Patients With Pulmonary Venous Obstruction After Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection Repair

Background

The aim of this study was to establish a nomogram to quantify the risk of postoperative pulmonary venous obstruction (PVO) and to make a scientific decision through the decision curve.

Methods

In total, 151 PVO patients with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC) repair in our hospital from December 2008 to December 2015 were involved in this study. A nomogram was generated based on the contribution weights of variables, which were found out by logistic analysis. The optimal clinical decision point was determined by the decision analysis and clinical impact curve, which could assess the net benefit between the nomogram and each independent risk factor for postoperative PVO.

Result

Pulmonary venous obstruction with TAPVC repair was found to be positively and independently correlated with preoperative pulmonary hypertension, surgical methods, and preoperative pulmonary venous stenosis.

Conclusion(s)

The study introduced a novel model to aid in clinical decisions making for the patients with TAPVC individually, which may shed light on the evaluation of PVO risk.

Emergency surgical treatment of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection

BACKGROUND

This study explored the strategy and effect of emergency surgical treatment for total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC).

METHODS

From March 2009 to February 2020, 78 patients with TAPVC underwent emergency surgical correction. There were 51 males and 27 females. The median age was 39.5 days, and the median weight was 4.0 kg. Preoperative percutaneous oxygen saturation was 80.8% ± 4.5%.

RESULTS

Of the cases investigated, seven died during the perioperative period; 16 had a delayed chest closure; 19 had early pulmonary vein obstruction; two had secondary tracheal intubation; one had a brain complication; and one had a third-degree atrioventricular block. Low weight, younger age, cardiopulmonary bypass time, and aortic cross-clamp time were identified as risk factors for early mortality. During the follow-up from 4 to 137 months, 12 cases did not respond to follow-up requests. Ten patients died within 1-6 months after discharge. One patient underwent reoperation due to pulmonary vein obstruction. The longer hospital stay after the operation and intensive care unit time were identified as risk factors for late mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

Emergency surgery for severe TAPVC patients after admission achieved good short-term results. Prenatal diagnosis should be strengthened to save more patients. The higher late mortality rate of such patients indicates that post-discharge management should be strengthened to reduce the occurrence of post-discharge deaths.

Venous Flow Variation Predicts Preoperative Pulmonary Venous Obstruction in Children with Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection

BACKGROUND

Identifying preoperative pulmonary venous obstruction in total anomalous pulmonary venous connection is important to guide treatment planning and risk prognostication. No standardized echocardiographic definition of obstruction exists in the literature. Definitions based on absolute velocities are affected by technical limitations and variations in pulmonary venous return. The authors developed a metric to quantify pulmonary venous blood flow variation: pulmonary venous variability index (PVVI). The aim of this study was to demonstrate its accuracy in defining obstruction.

METHODS

All patients with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection at a single institution were identified. Echocardiograms were reviewed, and maximum (V_max), mean (V_mean), and minimum (V_min) velocities along the pulmonary venous pathway were measured. PVVI was defined as (V_max - V_min)/V_mean. These metrics were compared with pressures measured on cardiac catheterization. Echocardiographic measures were then compared between patients with and without clinical preoperative obstruction (defined as a need for preoperative intubation, catheter-based intervention, or surgery within 1 day of diagnosis), as well as pulmonary edema by chest radiography and markers of lactic acidosis. One hundred thirty-seven patients were included, with 22 having catheterization pressure recordings.

RESULTS

V_max and V_mean were not different between patients with catheter gradients ≥ 4 and < 4 mm Hg, while PVVI was significantly lower and V_min higher in those with gradients ≥ 4 mm Hg. The composite outcome of preoperative obstruction occurred in 51 patients (37%). Absolute velocities were not different between patients with and without clinical obstruction, while PVVI was significantly lower in patients with obstruction. All metrics except V_max were associated with pulmonary edema; none were associated with blood gas metrics.

CONCLUSIONS

The authors developed a novel quantitative metric of pulmonary venous flow, which was superior to traditional echocardiographic metrics. Decreased PVVI was highly associated with elevated gradients measured by catheterization and clinical preoperative obstruction. These results should aid risk assessment and diagnosis preoperatively in patients with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection.

Numerical Simulation of Hemodynamics in Two Models for Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection Surgery

OBJECTIVE

To numerically compare the prospective hemodynamic outcomes between a new window surgery and a traditional surgery in the treatment of supracardiac total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (S-TAPVC).

METHODS

A 3D geometry model, composed of pulmonary vein (PV) and left atrium (LA), was reconstructed based on summarized data with S-TAPVC. Two surgery models were established based on this model. One is the traditional surgery model, where an elliptical anastomosis was created by incising and stitching the LA and the common vein (CV) along the axis of the CV. The other is the new window surgery model, where the CV was incised with an H-shaped orifice, and LA was incised with a transposed H-shaped orifice, and then the orifice edges were stitched like a window. Two models with a relative cross sectional area (RCSA) of 300 mm2/m2 and 500 mm2/m2 were established, which correspond to traditional surgery and window surgery. Numerical simulation of hemodynamics was carried out. The velocity, left atrium and pulmonary vein pressure, the pressure difference of anastomosis and the energy conversion efficiency were analyzed to evaluate the prospective hemodynamic outcomes of these two operations.

RESULTS

Window surgery presented a lower blood flow velocity, pressure difference, and the WSS at the anastomosis, compared to traditional surgery. In terms of energy loss, the power conversion efficiency of window surgery was significantly higher than that of traditional surgery, with 66.8% and 53.5%, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The new window surgery demonstrates a lower pressure difference of anastomosis and higher energy conversion efficiency, which may be a better choice compared with the traditional surgery for S-TAPVC patient.

Is Sutureless Technique Beneficial in the Primary Repair of Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection? A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

A meta-analysis was performed for a comparison of outcomes between sutureless technique and conventional surgery for primary repair for total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC). Electronic databases including PubMed, EMbase, Scopus, and Cochrane Library were searched systematically for the single-arm studies regarding sutureless repair or conventional surgery, and two-arm studies compared the outcomes of sutureless repair and conventional surgery for TAPVC. Corresponding data were extracted and the methodological quality was assessed by two reviewers independently. 26 studies were included, involving a total of 2702 patients. It was observed that compared with conventional surgery, sutureless technique was associated with a lower occurrence rate of post-operative pulmonary veins obstruction (PVO) (4.6% vs. 13.5%, OR 0.54 in favor of sutureless technique) and re-operations due to PVO (3.4% vs. 12.4%, 0.25 in favor of sutureless technique). However, meta-analyses of post-operative early (OR 0.57; 95% CI 0.27-1.19; P = 0.13), late (OR 0.37; 95% CI 0.13-1.06; P = 0.13), and overall (OR 0.61; 95% CI 0.36-1.03; P = 0.07) mortality showed no significant difference between sutureless technique and conventional surgery. Compared with conventional surgery, sutureless technique was associated with a lower occurrence rate of post-operative PVO and re-operations due to PVO. Meanwhile, post-operative early, late, and overall mortality were not statistically different between two surgical approaches. Sutureless technique is beneficial in the primary repair of TAPVC regarding post-operative PVO and re-operations due to PVO. However, the level of evidence was low and randomized controlled trials should be designed to evaluate the safety and effectiveness of sutureless technique for TAPVC.

Repair of Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Connection: Risk Factors for Postoperative Obstruction

BACKGROUND

Pulmonary venous obstruction after repair of total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC) results in substantial morbidity and mortality. Risk factors for postoperative obstruction remain ambiguous. In addition, the existing literature has no standard definition for preoperative obstruction, making patient counseling difficult.

METHODS

All patients undergoing repair of TAPVC at our institution from January 1, 2006, to October 23, 2017, were identified. The primary outcome was the development of postoperative obstruction, analyzed as a time-to-event outcome. Clinical information was extracted to assess risk factors. Degrees of preoperative obstruction were defined based on echocardiographic, catheterization, and clinical findings. Univariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazard regression methods were used to identify factors associated with the primary outcome.

RESULTS

During the study interval, 119 patients underwent repair of TAPVC (40% single ventricle), and postoperative obstruction developed in 25 patients (21%). Risk factors associated with obstruction were heterotaxy syndrome, single-ventricle heart disease, additional procedures at the time of vein repair, mixed-type TAPVC, and preoperative obstruction. Having even mild preoperative obstruction (≥1.2 m/s by Doppler echocardiography) was predictive of postoperative obstruction. A multivariable model showed mixed-type TAPVC and the presence of preoperative obstruction were associated with a more than twofold greater hazard of obstruction.

CONCLUSIONS

TAPVC in the setting of heterotaxy and a single ventricle remains challenging, with high rates of postoperative obstruction. Mixed-type TAPVC is an independent risk factor for postoperative obstruction, particularly in patients with isolated TAPVC. Even mild preoperative obstruction is a risk factor for postoperative obstruction. These results may help risk-stratify TAPVC patients.

Neonatal Outcomes in Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return: The Role of Prenatal Diagnosis and Pulmonary Venous Obstruction

The objective of this study is to evaluate neonatal outcomes of total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR) and identify fetal echocardiography findings associated with preoperative pulmonary venous obstruction (PPVO). This retrospective study evaluated TAPVR cases from 2005 to 2014 for preoperative and postoperative outcomes based on prenatal diagnosis, PPVO, and heterotaxy syndrome. Fetal pulmonary and vertical vein Dopplers were analyzed as predictors of PPVO. Of 137 TAPVR cases, 12% were prenatally diagnosed; 60% had PPVO, and 21% had heterotaxy. Of the prenatally diagnosed patients, 63% also had heterotaxy. TAPVR repair was performed in 135 cases and survival to discharge was 82% (112/137). Heterotaxy was the only independent predictor of mortality on multiple regression analysis [OR 5.5 (CI 1.3-16.7), p = 0.02]. PPVO was associated with preoperative acidosis, need for inhaled nitric oxide, and more emergent surgery, but not postoperative mortality. Fetal vertical vein Doppler peak velocity > 0.74 m/s mmHg predicted PPVO (93% sensitivity; 83% specificity) while pulmonary vein Doppler did not. TAPVR has severe neonatal morbidity and mortality with low prenatal diagnosis rates in the absence of heterotaxy. Patients with obstructed TAPVR had greater preoperative morbidity, but only heterotaxy was independently associated with increased postoperative mortality. Vertical vein velocity helped prenatally identify those at risk of PPVO.

Sutureless Versus Conventional Pulmonary Vein Repair: A Magnetic Resonance Pilot Study

BACKGROUND

Two different surgical techniques are used to repair anomalous pulmonary venous connection or pulmonary vein (PV) stenosis: the classic repair (CR) and the sutureless repair (SR). The purpose of this study was to compare the prevalence of PV stenosis between the two surgical approaches.

METHODS

Patients were prospectively recruited irrespective of symptoms or previous imaging findings. Cardiac magnetic resonance imaging and echocardiography were performed in a blinded fashion on the same day.

RESULTS

Twenty-five patients (13 male) after PV repair completed the study. Twelve patients had undergone CR and 13 SR (in 1 patient as a reoperation after CR). The median age at operation was 2 months (range: 1 day to 5 years) and was similar for both groups; the median age at the time of cardiac magnetic resonance was 9 years (range: 6 to 17 years) and 9 years (range: 6 to 14 years) for the CR and SR, respectively. Four patients had PV stenosis. All 4 patients had had total anomalous pulmonary venous connection, 1 patient had undergone repair with the CR and 2 with a primary SR; 1 patient had first undergone a CR, followed by a SR for stenosis. Echocardiography provided complete visualization of all PVs in only 11 patients (44%). Notable stenosis of at least one PV was missed by echocardiography in 2 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

This pilot study indicates that not only CR but also SR may be burdened by a risk of postoperative PV stenosis. Magnetic resonance imaging should be used routinely for the postoperative monitoring for the development of PV obstruction.

A 30-year experience with mixed-type total anomalous pulmonary venous connection: a word of caution

BACKGROUND

Patients with total anomalous pulmonary venous connection can be problematic, particularly those with mixed-type pathology. We aimed to describe a cohort of patients with mixed-type anomalous drainage, highlighting the treatment challenges, and identifying risk factors for poor outcome.

METHODS

We reviewed the clinical records of patients who underwent repair for mixed-type total anomalous pulmonary venous connection between 1986 and 2015.

RESULTS

A total of 19 patients were identified. The median age and weight of patients at surgery were 18 days (with a range from 1 to 185) and 3.4 kg (with a range from 1.9 to 6.5), respectively. Venous anatomy included a combination of duplicate supracardiac (four), supracardiac and cardiac (11), and supracardiac and infracardiac (four) drainage. Out of 19 patients, six (32%) died within 30 days or the initial hospital stay; two additional patients died from progressive pulmonary vein stenosis at 72 and 201 days, respectively, resulting in 42% mortality within the 1st year. Follow-up data were available for 8/11 long-term survivors. The median follow-up period was 7.3 years (with a range from 1.8 to 15.7). Only one patient underwent re-intervention for recurrent pulmonary vein stenosis. For surgical mortality, no statistically significant risk factors were identified, although the risk trended to be higher (p⩽0.1) with lower age and weight, an infracardiac component, and prolonged cardiopulmonary bypass. For 1-year mortality, the risk became significant (p⩽0.05) with a lower weight (p=0.01), an infracardiac component (p=0.03), and prolonged cardiopulmonary bypass (p=0.04).

CONCLUSION

The surgical and 1-year mortality in patients with mixed-type total anomalous pulmonary venous connection is high. On the other hand, among patients who survive past the 1st year, most have good outcomes without subsequent sequelae.

Continuous Cardiopulmonary Bypass During the Repair of Total Anomalous Pulmonary Venous Return

Circulatory arrest (CA) is traditionally utilized during the repair of total anomalous pulmonary venous return (TAPVR). Since 2005, we have exclusively repaired all types of TAPVR using continuous cardiopulmonary bypass. We present our technique using continuous cardiopulmonary bypass throughout the duration of the repair, by temporarily occluding the vertical vein and placing a pump sucker within the pulmonary venous confluence. This technique has been used on 29 consecutive patients and resulted in limited morbidity and absence of pulmonary vein stenosis from most recent follow-up.

Echocardiographic diagnosis of anomalous pulmonary venous connections: Experience of 84 cases from 1 medical center

We sought to evaluate the value of echocardiography in the diagnosis of different types of anomalous pulmonary venous connections (APVCs) and summarize the diagnostic experience. A total of 84 patients with APVC were confirmed by surgery (n = 82) or computerized tomography angiography (CTA) (n = 2) in the last 6 years (2008-2014) at the Wuhan Union Hospital. The total anomalous pulmonary venous connection (TAPVC) cases account for 60.7%, and partial anomalous pulmonary venous connection (PAPVC) cases account for 39.3% among the 84 cases that were identified. The 51 TAPVCs were classified by the Darling method-type I (41.1%), type II (52.9%), type III (1.9%), and type IV (3.9%). The most common drainage path of type I was common pulmonary drainage to the left innominate vein via vertical vein, and the coronary sinus drainage was the most common path in type II. Compared with surgical or CTA results, the sensitivity and specificity of echocardiography in the diagnosis of APVCs were 97.6% and 99.9%, respectively. The echocardiography misdiagnoses were mainly seen in PAPVCs. Of the TAPVCs and PAPVCs correctly diagnosed by echocardiography, the diagnostic accuracy of classification were 94% and 100%, respectively. Echocardiography has specific value in diagnosing and classification of APVC, especially the supracardiac and cardiac TAPVCs. Multiplane scan views and color Doppler improve the display of drainage pathway.