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Wegrecki M. CD1a-mediated immunity from a molecular perspective. Mol Immunol 2023; 158:43-53. [PMID: 37116273 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2023.04.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2022] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 04/30/2023]
Abstract
Human CD1a is a non-polymorphic glycoprotein that presents lipid antigens to T cells. The most obvious role of CD1a is associated with its expression on Langerhans cells in epidermis, where it is involved in responses to pathogens. Antigen-specific T cells are believed to co-recognise CD1a presenting bacterial antigens such as species of lipopeptides from Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Further, human skin contains large amount of endogenous lipids that can activate distinct subsets of CD1a-restricted autoreactive T cells, mostly belonging to the αβ lineage, which are abundant in human blood and skin and are important for skin homeostasis in healthy individuals. CD1a and CD1a-restricted T cells have been linked to certain autoimmune conditions such as psoriasis, atopic dermatitis and contact hypersensitivity becoming a potential candidate for clinical interventions. A significant progress has been made in the last twenty years towards our understanding of the molecular processes that orchestrate CD1a-lipid binding, antigen presentation and mechanism of CD1a recognition by αβ and γδ T cells. This review summarises the recent developments within the field of CD1a-mediated immunity from a molecular perspective.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Wegrecki
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia.
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Harly C, Robert J, Legoux F, Lantz O. γδ T, NKT, and MAIT Cells During Evolution: Redundancy or Specialized Functions? JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY (BALTIMORE, MD. : 1950) 2022; 209:217-225. [PMID: 35821101 PMCID: PMC7613099 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.2200105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Innate-like T cells display characteristics of both innate lymphoid cells (ILCs) and mainstream αβ T cells, leading to overlapping functions of innate-like T cells with both subsets. In this review, we show that although innate-like T cells are probably present in all vertebrates, their main characteristics are much better known in amphibians and mammals. Innate-like T cells encompass both γδ and αβ T cells. In mammals, γδ TCRs likely coevolved with molecules of the butyrophilin family they interact with, whereas the semi-invariant TCRs of iNKT and mucosal-associated invariant T cells are evolutionarily locked with their restricting MH1b molecules, CD1d and MR1, respectively. The strong conservation of the Ag recognition systems of innate-like T cell subsets despite similar effector potentialities supports that each one fulfills nonredundant roles related to their Ag specificity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christelle Harly
- Nantes Université, Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale UMR1307, Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique UMR6075, Université d'Angers, Centre de Recherche en Cancérologie et Immunologie Intégrée Nantes Angers CRCI2NA, Nantes, France;
- LabEx Immunotherapy, Graft, Oncology, Nantes, France
| | - Jacques Robert
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY
| | - Francois Legoux
- INSERM U932, Paris Sciences et Lettres Université, Institut Curie, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Lantz
- INSERM U932, Paris Sciences et Lettres Université, Institut Curie, Paris, France;
- Laboratoire d'Immunologie Clinique, Institut Curie, Paris, France; and
- Centre d'Investigation Clinique en Biothérapie Gustave-Roussy Institut Curie (CIC-BT1428), Paris, France
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Lee W, Mun S, Choi SY, Oh DY, Park YS, Han K. Comparative Analysis for Genetic Characterization in Korean Native Jeju Horse. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:ani11071924. [PMID: 34203473 PMCID: PMC8300358 DOI: 10.3390/ani11071924] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 06/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In modern times, horse breeds, mostly in horse racing, are the Thoroughbred varieties obtained by breeding three Godolphin Arabians with British mares in England. Especially in Jeju Island, Korea, Jeju horses have been introduced from Mongolia since the 13th century. They have contributed a lot to the agricultural community, but their population has been rapidly decreasing due to rapid agricultural industrialization. Therefore, we sympathize with Jeju horse-specific genetic variation and compare and analyze evolutionary correlations by utilizing Whole Genome Sequencing analysis to evaluate the genetic diversity of Jeju horses and preserve genetic information. We explored Jeju horse-specific genetic differences through a comparative analysis of large-capacity genomic data between the public database and a Thoroughbred variety. In order to adapt to the barren external environment, it is predicted that Jeju horses have experienced strong positive selection in the direction of accumulating many genetic variations, enough to cause functional differences in the eqCD1a6 gene to have an efficient immune function. In addition, we further validate the Jeju horse-specific single nucleotide polymorphisms in the aqCD1a6 gene by employing the digital PCR method, a diagnostic technique for genetic variations. Abstract The Jeju horse is a native Korean species that has been breeding on Jeju Island since the 13th century. Their shape has a distinct appearance from the representative species, Thoroughbred. Here, we performed a comparison of the Jeju horse and Thoroughbred horse for the identification of genome-wide structure variation by using the next-generation sequencing (NGS) technique. We generated an average of 95.59 Gb of the DNA sequence, resulting in an average of 33.74 X sequence coverage from five Jeju horses. In addition, reads obtained from WGRS data almost covered the horse reference genome (mapped reads 98.4%). Based on our results, we identified 1,244,064 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), 113,498 genomic insertions, and 114,751 deletions through bioinformatics analysis. Interestingly, the results of the WGRS comparison indicated that the eqCD1a6 gene contains signatures of positive natural selection in Jeju horses. The eqCD1a6 gene is known to be involved in immunity. The eqCD1a6 gene of Jeju horses commonly contained 296 variants (275 SNPs and 21 INDELs) that were compared with its counterpart of two Thoroughbred horses. In addition, we used LOAA, digital PCR, to confirm the possibility of developing a molecular marker for species identification using variant sites. As a result, it was possible to confirm the result of the molecular marker with high accuracy. Nevertheless, eqCD1a6 was shown to be functionally intact. Taken together, we have found significant genomic variation in these two different horse species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wooseok Lee
- Center for Bio-Medical Engineering Core Facility, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea; (W.L.); (S.M.)
| | - Seyoung Mun
- Center for Bio-Medical Engineering Core Facility, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea; (W.L.); (S.M.)
- Department of Nanobiomedical Science & BK21 PLUS NBM Global Research Center for Regenerative Medicine, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea
| | - Song-Yi Choi
- Department of Pathology, Colleage of Medicine, Chungnam National University, Daejeon 34134, Korea;
| | - Dong-Yep Oh
- Livestock Research Institute, Gyeongsangbuk-Do, Yeongju 36052, Korea;
| | - Yong-Soo Park
- Department of Equine Industry, Korea National College of Agriculture and Fisheries, Jeonju 54874, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.P.); (K.H.); Tel.: +82-41-550-1298 (Y.-S.P. & K.H.)
| | - Kyudong Han
- Center for Bio-Medical Engineering Core Facility, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea; (W.L.); (S.M.)
- Department of Microbiology, College of Science and Technology, Dankook University, Cheonan 31116, Korea
- Correspondence: (Y.-S.P.); (K.H.); Tel.: +82-41-550-1298 (Y.-S.P. & K.H.)
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Reinink P, Shahine A, Gras S, Cheng TY, Farquhar R, Lopez K, Suliman SA, Reijneveld JF, Le Nours J, Tan LL, León SR, Jimenez J, Calderon R, Lecca L, Murray MB, Rossjohn J, Moody DB, Van Rhijn I. A TCR β-Chain Motif Biases toward Recognition of Human CD1 Proteins. THE JOURNAL OF IMMUNOLOGY 2019; 203:3395-3406. [PMID: 31694911 DOI: 10.4049/jimmunol.1900872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
High-throughput TCR sequencing allows interrogation of the human TCR repertoire, potentially connecting TCR sequences to antigenic targets. Unlike the highly polymorphic MHC proteins, monomorphic Ag-presenting molecules such as MR1, CD1d, and CD1b present Ags to T cells with species-wide TCR motifs. CD1b tetramer studies and a survey of the 27 published CD1b-restricted TCRs demonstrated a TCR motif in humans defined by the TCR β-chain variable gene 4-1 (TRBV4-1) region. Unexpectedly, TRBV4-1 was involved in recognition of CD1b regardless of the chemical class of the carried lipid. Crystal structures of two CD1b-specific TRBV4-1+ TCRs show that germline-encoded residues in CDR1 and CDR3 regions of TRBV4-1-encoded sequences interact with each other and consolidate the surface of the TCR. Mutational studies identified a key positively charged residue in TRBV4-1 and a key negatively charged residue in CD1b that is shared with CD1c, which is also recognized by TRBV4-1 TCRs. These data show that one TCR V region can mediate a mechanism of recognition of two related monomorphic Ag-presenting molecules that does not rely on a defined lipid Ag.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Reinink
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, the Netherlands.,Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Adam Shahine
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Stephanie Gras
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Tan-Yun Cheng
- Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Rachel Farquhar
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Kattya Lopez
- Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115.,Socios en Salud Sucursal Peru, 15001 Lima, Peru
| | - Sara A Suliman
- Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Josephine F Reijneveld
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, the Netherlands.,Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115.,Stratingh Institute for Chemistry, University of Groningen, 9747AG Groningen, the Netherlands
| | - Jérôme Le Nours
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Li Lynn Tan
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | | | | | | | | | - Megan B Murray
- Department of Global Health and Social Medicine, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115.,Division of Global Health Equity, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA 02115.,Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115; and
| | - Jamie Rossjohn
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.,Institute of Infection and Immunity, School of Medicine, Cardiff University, CF14 4XN Cardiff, United Kingdom
| | - D Branch Moody
- Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
| | - Ildiko Van Rhijn
- Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, 3584CL Utrecht, the Netherlands; .,Division of Rheumatology, Inflammation, and Immunity, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115
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Le Nours J, Shahine A, Gras S. Molecular features of lipid-based antigen presentation by group 1 CD1 molecules. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2017; 84:48-57. [PMID: 29113870 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Revised: 09/12/2017] [Accepted: 11/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Lipids are now widely considered to play a variety of important roles in T-cell mediated immunity, including serving as antigens. Lipid-based antigens are presented by a specialised group of glycoproteins termed CD1. In humans, three classes of CD1 molecules exist: group 1 (CD1a, CD1b, CD1c), group 2 (CD1d), and group 3 (CD1e). While CD1d-mediated T-cell immunity has been extensively investigated, we have only recently gained insights into the structure and function of group 1 CD1 molecules. Structural studies have revealed how lipid-based antigens are presented by group 1 CD1 molecules, as well as shedding light on the molecular requirements for T-cell recognition. Here, we provide an overview of our current understanding of lipid presentation by group 1 CD1 molecules in humans and their recognition by T-cells, as well as examining the potential differences in lipid presentation that may occur across different species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Le Nours
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Adam Shahine
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia
| | - Stephanie Gras
- Infection and Immunity Program and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia; Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Advanced Molecular Imaging, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
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Abstract
All higher vertebrates share the fundamental components of the adaptive immune system: the B cell receptor, the T cell receptor, and classical MHC proteins. At a more detailed level, their immune systems vary considerably, especially with respect to the non-polymorphic MHC class I-like proteins. In mammals, the CD1 family of lipid-presenting proteins is encoded by clusters of genes of widely divergent sizes and compositions. Another MHC class I-like protein, MR1, is typically encoded by a single gene that is highly conserved among species. Based on mammalian genomes and the available data on cellular expression profiles and protein structure, we review MR1 genes and families of CD1 genes in modern mammals from a genetic and functional perspective. Understanding the CD1 and MR1 systems across animal species provides insights into the specialized functions of the five types of CD1 proteins and facilitates careful consideration of animal models for human diseases in which immune responses to lipids and bacterial metabolites play a role.
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Schjaerff M, Keller SM, Fass J, Froenicke L, Grahn RA, Lyons L, Affolter VK, Kristensen AT, Moore PF. Refinement of the canine CD1 locus topology and investigation of antibody binding to recombinant canine CD1 isoforms. Immunogenetics 2015; 68:191-204. [DOI: 10.1007/s00251-015-0889-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/04/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Abstract
The antigen-presenting molecules CD1 and MHC class I-related protein (MR1) display lipids and small molecules to T cells. The antigen display platforms in the four CD1 proteins are laterally asymmetrical, so that the T cell receptor (TCR)-binding surfaces are comprised of roofs and portals, rather than the long grooves seen in the MHC antigen-presenting molecules. TCRs can bind CD1 proteins with left-sided or right-sided footprints, creating unexpected modes of antigen recognition. The use of tetramers of human CD1a, CD1b, CD1c or MR1 proteins now allows detailed analysis of the human T cell repertoire, which has revealed new invariant TCRs that bind CD1b molecules and are different from those that define natural killer T cells and mucosal-associated invariant T cells.
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Abstract
The structure and amino acid diversity of the T-cell receptor (TCR), similar in nature to that of Fab portions of antibodies, would suggest that these proteins have a nearly infinite capacity to recognize antigen. Yet all currently defined native T cells expressing an α and β chain in their TCR can only sense antigen when presented in the context of a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule. This MHC molecule can be one of many that exist in vertebrates, presenting small peptide fragments, lipid molecules, or small molecule metabolites. Here we review the pattern of TCR recognition of MHC molecules throughout a broad sampling of species and T-cell lineages and also touch upon T cells that do not appear to require MHC presentation for their surveillance function. We review the diversity of MHC molecules and information on the corresponding T-cell lineages identified in divergent species. We also discuss TCRs with structural domains unlike that of conventional TCRs of mouse and human. By presenting this broad view of TCR sequence, structure, domain organization, and function, we seek to explore how this receptor has evolved across time and been selected for alternative antigen-recognition capabilities in divergent lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caitlin C. Castro
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Adrienne M. Luoma
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Erin J. Adams
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Committee on Immunology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
- Committee on Cancer Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
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Dossa RG, Alperin DC, Garzon D, Mealey RH, Brown WC, Jervis PJ, Besra GS, Cox LR, Hines SA. In contrast to other species, α-Galactosylceramide (α-GalCer) is not an immunostimulatory NKT cell agonist in horses. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2015; 49:49-58. [PMID: 25445911 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2014.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2014] [Revised: 11/06/2014] [Accepted: 11/06/2014] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
α-GalCer is a potent immunomodulatory molecule that is presented to NKT cells via the CD1 antigen-presenting system. We hypothesized that when used as an adjuvant α-GalCer would induce protective immune responses against Rhodococcus equi, an important pathogen of young horses. Here we demonstrate that the equine CD1d molecule shares most features found in CD1d from other species and has a suitable lipid-binding groove for presenting glycolipids to NKT cells. However, equine CTL stimulated with α-GalCer failed to kill cells infected with R. equi, and α-GalCer did not increase killing by CTL co-stimulated with R. equi antigen. Likewise, α-GalCer did not induce the lymphoproliferation of equine PBMC or increase the proliferation of R. equi-stimulated cells. Intradermal injection of α-GalCer in horses did not increase the recruitment of lymphocytes or cytokine production. Furthermore, α-GalCer-loaded CD1d tetramers, which have been shown to be broadly cross-reactive, did not bind equine lymphocytes. Altogether, our results demonstrate that in contrast to previously described species, horses are unable to respond to α-GalCer. This raises questions about the capabilities and function of NKT cells and other lipid-specific T lymphocytes in horses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robson G Dossa
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 647040, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Debra C Alperin
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 647040, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Diana Garzon
- Unilever Centre for Molecular Science Informatics, Department of Chemistry, University of Cambridge, Lensfield Road, Cambridge CB2 1EW, UK
| | - Robert H Mealey
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 647040, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Wendy C Brown
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 647040, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA
| | - Peter J Jervis
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Gurdyal S Besra
- School of Biosciences, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Liam R Cox
- School of Chemistry, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham B15 2TT, UK
| | - Stephen A Hines
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, P.O. Box 647040, Pullman, WA 99164-7040, USA.
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Abstract
For decades, proteins were thought to be the sole or at least the dominant source of antigens for T cells. Studies in the 1990s demonstrated that CD1 proteins and mycobacterial lipids form specific targets of human αβ T cells. The molecular basis by which T-cell receptors (TCRs) recognize CD1-lipid complexes is now well understood. Many types of mycobacterial lipids function as antigens in the CD1 system, and new studies done with CD1 tetramers identify T-cell populations in the blood of tuberculosis patients. In human populations, a fundamental difference between the CD1 and major histocompatibility complex systems is that all humans express nearly identical CD1 proteins. Correspondingly, human CD1 responsive T cells show evidence of conserved TCRs. In addition to natural killer T cells and mucosal-associated invariant T (MAIT cells), conserved TCRs define other subsets of human T cells, including germline-encoded mycolyl-reactive (GEM) T cells. The simple immunogenetics of the CD1 system and new investigative tools to measure T-cell responses in humans now creates a situation in which known lipid antigens can be developed as immunodiagnostic and immunotherapeutic reagents for tuberculosis disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ildiko Van Rhijn
- Division of Rheumatology, Immunology and Allergy, Brigham and Women's Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Department of Infectious Diseases and Immunology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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