Current prospective in using cold-active enzymes as eco-friendly detergent additive

Computer-aided mining of a psychrophilic cellobiose 2-epimerase from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau gene catalogue

Cellobiose 2-epimerase (CE) catalyzes the conversion of the lactose into its high-value derivatives, epilactose and lactulose, which has great prospects in food applications. In this study, CE sequences from the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau gene catalogue, we screened these for structural flexibility through molecular dynamics simulation to identify potential psychrophilic CE candidates. One such psychrophilic CE we termed psyCE demonstrated exceptional epimerization activity, achieving an optimum activity of 122.2 ± 1.6 U/mg. Its kinetic parameters (Kcat and Km) for epimerization activity were 219.9 ± 5.6 s-1 and 261.9 ± 18.1 mM, respectively, representing the highest Kcat recorded among known cold-active CEs. Notably, this is the first report of a psychrophilic CE. The psyCE can effectively produce epilactose at 8 °C, converting 20.3 % of 200 mM lactose into epilactose within four hours. These findings suggest that psyCE is highly suitable for cryogenic food processing, and glaciers may serve as a valuable repository of psychrophilic enzymes.

Chemical mapping of xyloglucan distribution and cellulose crystallinity in cotton textiles reveals novel enzymatic targets to improve clothing longevity

Pilling is a form of textile mechanical damage, forming fibrous bobbles on the surface of garments, resulting in premature disposal of clothing by consumers. However, our understanding on how the structural properties of the cellulosic matrix compliment the three-dimensional shape of cotton pills remains limited. This knowledge gap has hindered the development of effective 'pillase' technologies over the past 20 years due to challenges in balancing depilling efficacy with fabric integrity preservation. Therefore, the main focus here was characterising the role of cellulose and the hemicellulose components in cotton textiles to elucidate subtle differences between the chemistry of pills and fibre regions involved in structural integrity. State-of-the-art bioimaging using carbohydrate binding modules, monoclonal antibodies, and Leica SP8 and a Nikon A1R confocal microscopes, revealed the biophysical structure of cotton pills for the first time. Identifying regions of increased crystalline cellulose in the base of anchor fibres and weaker amorphous cellulose at dislocations in their centres, enhancing our understanding of current enzyme specificity. Surprisingly, pills contained a 7-fold increase in the concentration of xyloglucan compared to the main textile. Therefore, xyloglucan offers a previously undescribed target for overcoming this benefit-to-risk paradigm, suggesting a role for xyloglucanase enzymes in future pillase systems.

Lipases for targeted industrial applications, focusing on the development of biotechnologically significant aspects: A comprehensive review of recent trends in protein engineering

Lipases are remarkable biocatalysts, adept at catalyzing the breakdown of diverse compounds into glycerol, fatty acids, and mono- and di-glycerides via hydrolysis. Beyond this, they facilitate esterification, transesterification, alcoholysis, acidolysis, and more, making them versatile in industrial applications. In industrial processes, lipases that exhibit high stability are favored as they can withstand harsh conditions. However, most native lipases are unable to endure adverse conditions, making them unsuitable for industrial use. Protein engineering proves to be a potent technology in the development of lipases that can function effectively under challenging conditions and fulfill criteria for various industrial processes. This review concentrated on new trends in protein engineering to enhance the diversity of lipase genes and employed in silico methods for predicting and comprehensively analyzing target mutations in lipases. Additionally, key molecular factors associated with industrial characteristics of lipases, including thermostability, solvent tolerance, catalytic activity, and substrate preference have been elucidated. The present review delved into how industrial traits can be enhanced through directed evolution (epPCR, gene shuffling), rational design (FRESCO, ASR), combined engineering strategies (i.e. CAST, ISM, and FRISM) as protein engineering methodologies in contexts of biodiesel production, food processing, and applications of detergent, pharmaceutics, and plastic degradation.

A lipase from Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus IDCC 3201 with thermostability and pH resistance for use as a detergent additive

Lipases are important biocatalysts and ubiquitous in plants, animals, and microorganisms. The high growth rates of microorganisms with low production costs have enabled the wide application of microbial lipases in detergent, food, and cosmetic industries. Herein, a novel lipase from Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus IDCC 3201 (Lac-Rh) was isolated and its activity analyzed under a range of reaction conditions to evaluate its potential industrial application. The isolated Lac-Rh showed a molecular weight of 24 kDa and a maximum activity of 3438.5 ± 1.8 U/mg protein at 60 °C and pH 8. Additionally, Lac-Rh retained activity in alkaline conditions and in 10% v/v concentrations of organic solvents, including glycerol and acetone. Interestingly, after pre-incubation in the presence of multiple commercial detergents, Lac-Rh maintained over 80% of its activity and the stains from cotton were successfully removed under a simulated laundry  setting. Overall, the purified lipase from L. rhamnosus IDCC 3201 has potential for use as a detergent in industrial applications. KEY POINTS: • A novel lipase (Lac-Rh) was isolated from Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus IDCC 3201 • Purified Lac-Rh exhibited its highest activity at a temperature of 60 °C and a pH of 8, respectively • Lac-Rh remains stable in commercial laundry detergent and enhances washing performance.

Heterologous expression and characterization of an M4 family extracellular metalloprotease for detergent application

Proteolytic enzymes stand out as the most widely employed category utilized in manufacturing industry. A new protease was separated from Planococcus sp.11815 strain and named as nprS-15615 in this research. The gene of this protease has not been reported, and its enzymatic properties have been studied for the first time. To enhance enzyme production, the Planococcus sp. protease gene was expressed in Bacillus licheniformis 2709. The expression level of nprS-15615 was observed under the control of regulatory elements PaprE. nprS-15615 protease activity reached 1186.24±32.87 U/mL after 48 hours of cultivation in shake flasks which was nearly four times the output of the original bacteria (291.38±25.73U/mL). The optimum temperature and pH of the recombinant protease were 30 ℃ and 8.0, respectively.The enzyme exhibited the highest capacity for hydrolyzing casein and demonstrated resilience towards a NaCl concentration of 10.0% (wt/v). Furthermore, in the presence of 0.5% surfactants, the recombinant protease activity can maintain above 75%, and with the existence of 0.5% liquid detergents, there was basically no loss of enzyme activity which indicated that nprS-15615 had good compatibility with surfactants and liquid detergents. In addition, npS-15615 performed well in the washing experiment, and the washing effect at 20 ℃ can be significantly improved by adding crude enzyme solution in the washing process.

Green ecofriendly enhancement of cellulase productivity using agricultural wastes by Aspergillus terreus MN901491: statistical designs and detergent ability on cotton fabrics

BACKGROUND

Cellulase is considered a group member of the hydrolytic enzymes, responsible for catalyzing the hydrolysis of cellulose and has various industrial applications. Agricultural wastes are used as an inexpensive source for several utilizable products throughout the world. So, searching for cellulase enzymes from fungal strains capable of utilizing agricultural wastes to increase productivity, reduce costs and overcome waste accumulation in the environment is very important to evaluate its potency as a bio-additive to detergent agents.

RESULTS

In the current study, the previously identified fungal strain Aspergillus terreus MN901491 was screened and selected for cellulase production. Medium parameters were optimized using one-factor-at-a-time (OFAT) and multi-factorial (Plackett-Burman and Box-Behnken) design methods. OFAT showed the ability of the fungal strain to utilize agricultural wastes (corn cob and rice straw) as a substrate. Also, yeast extract was the best nitrogen source for enhancing cellulase productivity. The most significant variables were determined by Plackett-Burman Design (PBD) and their concentrations were optimized by Response Surface Methodology (RSM) using Box-Behnken Design (BBD). Among eleven independent variables screened by PBD, malt extract, (NH4)2SO4, and KCl were the most significant ones followed by rice straw which affected cellulase production positively. The ANOVA results particularly the R2-value of PBD (0.9879) and BBD (0.9883) confirmed the model efficiency and provided a good interpretation of the experiments. PBD and BBD improved cellulase productivity by 6.1-fold greater than that obtained from OFAT. Medium optimization using OFAT and statistical models increased cellulase production from A. terreus MN901491 by 9.3-fold compared to the non-optimized medium. Moreover, the efficiency of cellulase activity on cotton fabrics as a bio-additive detergent was evaluated and estimated using whiteness and scanning electron microscope (SEM) that affirmed its potential effect and remarkable detergent ability to improve whiteness by 200% in comparison with non-washed fabric and by 190% in comparison with fabric washed by water.

CONCLUSION

The presented work was stabilized as a multi-efficiency in which wastes were used to produce cellulase enzyme from the fungal strain, Aspergillus terreus MN901491 as a bio-additive to detergent applications that involved ecofriendly and green processes.

Cold-active microbial enzymes and their biotechnological applications

Microorganisms known as psychrophiles/psychrotrophs, which survive in cold climates, constitute majority of the biosphere on Earth. Their capability to produce cold-active enzymes along with other distinguishing characteristics allows them to survive in the cold environments. Due to the relative ease of large-scale production compared to enzymes from plants and animals, commercial uses of microbial enzyme are alluring. The ocean depths, polar, and alpine regions, which make up over 85% of the planet, are inhabited to cold ecosystems. Microbes living in these regions are important for their metabolic contribution to the ecosphere as well as for their enzymes, which may have potential industrial applications. Cold-adapted microorganisms are a possible source of cold-active enzymes that have high catalytic efficacy at low and moderate temperatures at which homologous mesophilic enzymes are not active. Cold-active enzymes can be used in a variety of biotechnological processes, including food processing, additives in the detergent and food industries, textile industry, waste-water treatment, biopulping, environmental bioremediation in cold climates, biotransformation, and molecular biology applications with great potential for energy savings. Genetically manipulated strains that are suitable for producing a particular cold-active enzyme would be crucial in a variety of industrial and biotechnological applications. The potential advantage of cold-adapted enzymes will probably lead to a greater annual market than for thermo-stable enzymes in the near future. This review includes latest updates on various microbial source of cold-active enzymes and their biotechnological applications.

Stable and effective eco-enzyme cocktails in powder and liquid form of Stachybotrys microspora used as detergent additives

Objective

The present work aims to optimize fermentation parameters for the simultaneous production of eco-enzymes: proteases, amylases, and endoglucanases from the same fungus Stachybotrys microspora, and to evaluate their stability in free form and formulated in lye as detergent additives.

Methods

Initially, enzyme cocktail production was assayed in a medium comprising inexpensive waste biomass. Using the best substrate, we investigated the effect of its different concentrations and the NaCl concentration on the three enzymes co-production. Next, we studied the effect of several additives on the storage stability of the lyophilized enzyme cocktail (powder in liquid forms) free and incorporated in commercial laundry detergent. Finally, the washing efficiency analysis of the newly formulated enzyme cocktail was evaluated on dirty tissue pieces with different stains.

Results

The highest enzymatic cocktail production was achieved at 30 °C for 96 h after adding 0.1% NaCl and 1.5% wheat bran as waste biomass in the basal culture medium. The effect of adding maltodextrin, sucrose, or polyethylene glycol 4000 during freeze-drying showed that maltodextrin is the best additive to protect the activities of proteases, amylases, and cellulases of liquid and powder enzyme form. Additionally, the liquid formulation of these enzymes showed excellent stability and compatibility with 1% maltodextrin and 10% glycerol. Interestingly, we have developed a new formulation of an enzyme cocktail (liquid and powder) stable and highly compatible with detergents. Comparing the washing performance of different formulations containing our enzyme cocktail to commercial ones showed significantly better removal of different types of stains.

Conclusions

This research shows a cost-effective approach to simultaneously produce proteases, amylases, and endoglucanases from Stachybotrys microspora that could be considered a compatible detergent additive in the green detergent industry.

Molecular Biology Applications of Psychrophilic Enzymes: Adaptations, Advantages, Expression, and Prospective

Psychrophilic enzymes are primarily produced by microorganisms from extremely low-temperature environments which are known as psychrophiles. Their high efficiency at low temperatures and easy heat inactivation property have attracted extensive attention from various food and industrial bioprocesses. However, the application of these enzymes in molecular biology is still limited. In a previous review, the applications of psychrophilic enzymes in industries such as the detergent additives, the food additives, the bioremediation, and the pharmaceutical medicine, and cosmetics have been discussed. In this review, we discuss the main cold adaptation characteristics of psychrophiles and psychrophilic enzymes, as well as the relevant information on different psychrophilic enzymes in molecular biology. We summarize the mining and screening methods of psychrophilic enzymes. We finally recap the expression of psychrophilic enzymes. We aim to provide a reference process for the exploration and expression of new generation of psychrophilic enzymes.

Study of nano-hydroxyapatite tagged alkaline protease isolated from Himalayan sub-alpine Forest soil bacteria and role in recalcitrant feather waste degradation

Purified calcium serine metalloprotease from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia strain SMPB12 exhibits highest enzyme activity at pH 9 and temperature range between 15 °C-25 °C. Enzyme supplemented with 40 μM Ca-Hap-NP (NP-protease) showed maximum elevated activity of 17.29 μmole/min/ml (1.9-fold of original protease activity). The thermostability of the enzyme was maintained for 1 h at 60 °C over an alkaline pH range 7.5-10, as compared to the NP untreated enzyme whose activity was of 8.97 μmole/min/ml. A significant loss of activity with EDTA (1.05 μmole/min/ml, 11.75 %), PMSF (0.93 μmole/min/ml, 10.46 %) and Hg2+ (3.81 μmole/min/ml, 42.49 %) was also observed. Kinetics study of NP-protease showed maximum decreases in Km (28.11 %) from 0.28 mM (NP untreated enzyme) to 0.22 mM (NP-protease) along with maximum increase in Vmax (42.88 %) from 1.25 μmole/min/ml to 1.79 μmole/min/ml at varying temperatures. The enhanced activity of NP-protease was able to efficiently degrade recalcitrant solid wastes like feather to produce value-added products like amino acids and helps in declogging recalcitrant solid wastes. The nano-enabled protease may be utilized in a smaller amount for degrading in bulk recalcitrant solid proteinaceous waste at 15 °C temperature as declogging agents providing an eco-friendly efficient process.

Genome-wide analysis of lipolytic enzymes and characterization of a high-tolerant carboxylesterase from Sorangium cellulosum

Microorganisms are important sources of lipolytic enzymes with characteristics for wide promising usages in the specific industrial biotechnology. The cellulolytic myxobacterium Sorangium cellulosum is rich of lipolytic enzymes in the genome, but little has been investigated. Here, we discerned 406 potential lipolytic enzymes in 13 sequenced S. cellulosum genomes. These lipolytic enzymes belonged to 12 families, and most are novel with low identities (14-37%) to those reported. We characterized a new carboxylesterase, LipB, from the alkaline-adaptive So0157-2. This enzyme, belonging to family VIII, hydrolyzed glyceryl tributyrate and p-nitrophenyl esters with short chain fatty acids (≤C12), and exhibited the highest activity against p-nitrophenyl butyrate. It retained over 50% of the activities in a broad temperature range (from 20°C to 60°C), alkaline conditions (pH 8.0-9.5), and the enzymatic activity was stable with methanol, ethanol and isopropanol, and stimulated significantly in the presence of 5 mM Ni2+. LipB also exhibited β-lactamase activity on nitrocefin, but not ampicillin, cefotaxime and imipenem. The bioinformatic analysis and specific enzymatic characteristics indicate that S. cellulosum is a promising resource to explore lipolytic enzymes for industrial adaptations.

α-Amylase purified and characterized from fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) showed substantial anti-biofilm activity against Staphylococcus aureus MTCC740

Starch hydrolyzing α-amylase from germinated fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum) has been purified 104-fold to apparent electrophoretic homogeneity with a final specific activity of 297.5 units/mg. SDS-PAGE of the final preparation revealed a single protein band of 47.5 kDa, supported by LC/MS analysis and size-exclusion chromatography on the Superdex 200 (ÄKTA-FPLC). α-Amylase exhibited maximum activity at pH 5.5. An activation energy (Ea) of 9.12 kcal/mol was found to exist in the temperature range of 20 to 90 °C. When substrate concentrations were evaluated between 0.5 and 10 mg/mL, the Km and Vmax values for starch were observed to be 1.12 mg/mL and 384.14 μmol/min/mg, respectively. The major substrate starch exhibited high specificity for fenugreek α-amylase. In the presence of EDTA (5 mM), the activity was lost, however, it could be largely reversed with the addition of calcium. Furthermore, an effort was made to assess the ability of fenugreek seed-derived partially purified (DEAE-cellulose enzyme) and purified α-amylase to disperse inside 48 h-old biofilms of Staphylococcus aureus MTCC740. The outcomes clearly demonstrated that the purified and partially purified α-amylase both exhibited strong biofilm dispersion activity.

Probing the interaction of cephalosporin antibiotic "cefoperazone" with lysozyme using spectroscopic and in silico methods: Effect of paracetamol on binding

The interaction of lysozyme with cefoperazone was studied by means of spectroscopic and computational approaches. The change in the UV-visible spectrum of lysozyme in presence of cefoperazone was an indication of the complex formation between them. Fluorescence spectroscopy suggested that there was a fair interaction between the protein and drug which was taken place via dynamic quenching mechanism and the binding ratio was approximately 1:1. The binding was energetically feasible and principally supported by the hydrophobic forces. CD spectroscopic studies have shown that cefoperazone induced the secondary structure of lysozyme by increasing the α-helical contents of the latter. In silico studies revealed that the large nonpolar cavity was the preferred binding site of cefoperazone within lysozyme and the interaction was taken place mainly through hydrophobic forces with small involvement of hydrogen bonding and electrostatic interactions which is in good agreement with the experimental analyses. Effect of paracetamol was also seen on the binding and it was found that paracetamol had a negative influence on the binding between cefoperazone and lysozyme.

Helping proteins come in from the cold: 5 burning questions about cold-active enzymes

Enzymes from psychrophilic (cold-loving) organisms have attracted considerable interest over the past decades for their potential in various low-temperature industrial processes. However, we still lack large-scale commercialization of their activities. Here, we review their properties, limitations and potential. Our review is structured around answers to 5 central questions: 1. How do cold-active enzymes achieve high catalytic rates at low temperatures? 2. How is protein flexibility connected to cold-activity? 3. What are the sequence-based and structural determinants for cold-activity? 4. How does the thermodynamic stability of psychrophilic enzymes reflect their cold-active capabilities? 5. How do we effectively identify novel cold-active enzymes, and can we apply them in an industrial context? We conclude that emerging screening technologies combined with big-data handling and analysis make it reasonable to expect a bright future for our understanding and exploitation of cold-active enzymes.

Trends in the Use of Lipases: A Systematic Review and Bibliometric Analysis

Scientific mapping using bibliometric data network analysis was applied to analyze research works related to lipases and their industrial applications, evaluating the current state of research, challenges, and opportunities in the use of these biocatalysts, based on the evaluation of a large number of publications on the topic, allowing a comprehensive systematic data analysis, which had not yet been conducted in relation to studies specifically covering lipases and their industrial applications. Thus, studies involving lipase enzymes published from 2018 to 2022 were accessed from the Web of Science database. The extracted records result in the analysis of terms of bibliographic compatibility among the articles, co-occurrence of keywords, and co-citation of journals using the VOSviewer algorithm in the construction of bibliometric maps. This systematic review analysis of 357 documents, including original and review articles, revealed studies inspired by lipase enzymes in the research period, showing that the development of research, together with different areas of knowledge, presents good results related to the applications of lipases, due to information synchronization. Furthermore, this review showed the main challenges in lipase applications regarding increased production and operational stability; establishing well-defined evaluation criteria, such as cultivation conditions, activity, biocatalyst stability, type of support and reactor; thermodynamic studies; reuse cycles; and it can assist in defining goals for the development of successful large-scale applications, showing several points for improvement of future studies on lipase enzymes.

Comprehensive insights on environmental adaptation strategies in Antarctic bacteria and biotechnological applications of cold adapted molecules

Climate change and the induced environmental disturbances is one of the major threats that have a strong impact on bacterial communities in the Antarctic environment. To cope with the persistent extreme environment and inhospitable conditions, psychrophilic bacteria are thriving and displaying striking adaptive characteristics towards severe external factors including freezing temperature, sea ice, high radiation and salinity which indicates their potential in regulating climate change's environmental impacts. The review illustrates the different adaptation strategies of Antarctic microbes to changing climate factors at the structural, physiological and molecular level. Moreover, we discuss the recent developments in "omics" approaches to reveal polar "blackbox" of psychrophiles in order to gain a comprehensive picture of bacterial communities. The psychrophilic bacteria synthesize distinctive cold-adapted enzymes and molecules that have many more industrial applications than mesophilic ones in biotechnological industries. Hence, the review also emphasizes on the biotechnological potential of psychrophilic enzymes in different sectors and suggests the machine learning approach to study cold-adapted bacteria and engineering the industrially important enzymes for sustainable bioeconomy.

Bioengineered Enzymes and Precision Fermentation in the Food Industry

Enzymes have been used in the food processing industry for many years. However, the use of native enzymes is not conducive to high activity, efficiency, range of substrates, and adaptability to harsh food processing conditions. The advent of enzyme engineering approaches such as rational design, directed evolution, and semi-rational design provided much-needed impetus for tailor-made enzymes with improved or novel catalytic properties. Production of designer enzymes became further refined with the emergence of synthetic biology and gene editing techniques and a plethora of other tools such as artificial intelligence, and computational and bioinformatics analyses which have paved the way for what is referred to as precision fermentation for the production of these designer enzymes more efficiently. With all the technologies available, the bottleneck is now in the scale-up production of these enzymes. There is generally a lack of accessibility thereof of large-scale capabilities and know-how. This review is aimed at highlighting these various enzyme-engineering strategies and the associated scale-up challenges, including safety concerns surrounding genetically modified microorganisms and the use of cell-free systems to circumvent this issue. The use of solid-state fermentation (SSF) is also addressed as a potentially low-cost production system, amenable to customization and employing inexpensive feedstocks as substrate.

Enzyme immobilization studied through molecular dynamic simulations

In recent years, simulations have been used to great advantage to understand the structural and dynamic aspects of distinct enzyme immobilization strategies, as experimental techniques have limitations in establishing their impact at the molecular level. In this review, we discuss how molecular dynamic simulations have been employed to characterize the surface phenomenon in the enzyme immobilization procedure, in an attempt to decipher its impact on the enzyme features, such as activity and stability. In particular, computational studies on the immobilization of enzymes using i) nanoparticles, ii) self-assembled monolayers, iii) graphene and carbon nanotubes, and iv) other surfaces are covered. Importantly, this thorough literature survey reveals that, while simulations have been primarily performed to rationalize the molecular aspects of the immobilization event, their use to predict adequate protocols that can control its impact on the enzyme properties is, up to date, mostly missing.

Cold-Adapted Proteases: An Efficient and Energy-Saving Biocatalyst

The modern biotechnology industry has a demand for macromolecules that can function in extreme environments. One example is cold-adapted proteases, possessing advantages such as maintaining high catalytic efficiency at low temperature and low energy input during production and inactivation. Meanwhile, cold-adapted proteases are characterised by sustainability, environmental protection, and energy conservation; therefore, they hold significant economic and ecological value regarding resource utilisation and the global biogeochemical cycle. Recently, the development and application of cold-adapted proteases have gained gaining increasing attention; however, their applications potential has not yet been fully developed, which has seriously restricted the promotion and application of cold-adapted proteases in the industry. This article introduces the source, related enzymology characteristics, cold resistance mechanism, and the structure-function relationship of cold-adapted proteases in detail. This is in addition to discussing related biotechnologies to improve stability, emphasise application potential in clinical medical research, and the constraints of the further developing of cold-adapted proteases. This article provides a reference for future research and the development of cold-adapted proteases.

Improving cold-adaptability of mesophilic cellulase complex with a novel mushroom cellobiohydrolase for efficient low-temperature ensiling

Low ambient temperature poses a challenge for rice straw-silage processing in cold climate regions, as cold limits enzyme and microbial activity in silages. Here, a novel cold-active cellobiohydrolase (VvCBHI-I) was isolated from Volvariella volvacea, which exhibited outstanding cellobiohydrolase activity at 10-30 °C. The crude cellulase complex in the VvCBHI-I-expressing transformant T1 retained 50% relative activity at 10 °C, while the wildtype Trichoderma reesei showed <5% of the activity. VvCBHI-I greatly improved the saccharification efficiency of the cellulase complex with pretreated rice straw as substrate at 10 °C. In rice straw silage, pH (<4.5) and lactic acid content (>4.6%) remained stable after 15-day ensiling with the cellulase complex from T1 and Lactobacillus plantarum. Moreover, the proportions of cellulose and hemicellulose decreased to 29.84% ± 0.15% and 21.25% ± 0.26% of the dried material. This demonstrates the crucial potential of mushroom-derived cold-active cellobiohydrolases in successful ensiling in cold regions.

Formulation improvement of a concentrated enzyme detergent for high-speed rail trains through life cycle assessment methodology

High-speed rail has been operating in more than 25 countries (mainly in Asia, Europe and North America), and has become an important part of global economic development. However, the cleaning and maintenance of high-speed rail is a comprehensive task, which may easily cause environmental pollution. This study aims to analyze and improve the sustainability of the formulation and production process of a concentrated complex enzyme detergent used as the maintenance agent for high-speed trains via the life cycle assessment (LCA) method. The eFootprint software system with built-in China, European and Swiss Ecoinvent databases was used to establish the LCA model with the system boundary being from cradle to gate. The LCA model showed that the production of 1 kg of concentrated detergent generates the global warming potential of 2.53 kg CO2 eq, and other environmental emissions including acidification potential of 0.01 kg SO2 eq, eutrophication potential of 3.76E-03 kg PO43-eq, inhalable inorganic matter of 3.17E-03 kg PM2.5 eq, ozone depletion potential of 5.3E-06 kg CFC-11 eq, photochemical ozone formation potential of 3.44E-03 kg NMVOC eq, primary energy demand of 3.17 MJ, abiotic depletion potential of 4.97E-6 kg antimony eq, and water use of 0.84 kg. LCA results are not strongly dependent to the assumptions of the research, and the uncertainties of LCA results are between 8 and 16%, which is mainly due to the regional differences in technology sources, the year of technical data collection, and the representativeness of technology collection companies. Carbon footprint analysis showed that the production processes of enzyme stabilizer (glycerol) and surfactants contributed the most, while changes in power consumption during production and transportation distance of raw materials had limited effect on total carbon emissions. Therefore, the formulation of the concentrated complex enzymatic detergent was improved based on the LCA results. The new formulations with less enzyme stabilizer showed similar detergency to the original formulation. The new formulations could reduce carbon emissions by 5,500-9,200 tons per year and save between $4.4 and $7.4 million in annual production of 10,000 tons.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s10668-023-03122-2.

Optimized production of keratinolytic proteases from Bacillus tropicus LS27 and its application as a sustainable alternative for dehairing, destaining and metal recovery

The present study describes the isolation and characterization of Bacillus tropicus LS27 capable of keratinolytic protease production from Russell Market, Shivajinagar, Bangalore, Karnataka, with its diverse application. The ability of this strain to hydrolyze chicken feathers and skim milk was used to assess its keratinolytic and proteolytic properties. The strain identification was done using biochemical and molecular characterization using the 16S rRNA sequencing method. Further a sequential and systematic optimization of the factors affecting the keratinase production was done by initially sorting out the most influential factors (NaCl concentration, pH, inoculum level and incubation period in this study) through one factor at a time approach followed by central composite design based response surface methodology to enhance the keratinase production. Under optimized levels of NaCl (0.55 g/L), pH (7.35), inoculum level (5%) and incubation period (84 h), the keratinase production was enhanced from 41.62 U/mL to 401.67 ± 9.23 U/mL (9.65 fold increase) that corresponds to a feather degradation of 32.67 ± 1.36% was achieved. With regard to the cost effectiveness of application studies, the crude enzyme extracted from the optimized medium was tested for its potential dehairing, destaining and metal recovery properties. Complete dehairing was achieved within 48 h of treatment with crude enzyme without any visible damage to the collagen layer of goat skin. In destaining studies, combination of crude enzyme and detergent solution [1 mL detergent solution (5 mg/mL) and 1 mL crude enzyme] was found to be most effective in removing blood stains from cotton cloth. Silver recovery from used X-ray films was achieved within 6 min of treatment with crude enzyme maintained at 40 °C.

Marine enzymes: Classification and application in various industries

Oceans are regarded as a plentiful and sustainable source of biological compounds. Enzymes are a group of marine biomaterials that have recently drawn more attention because they are produced in harsh environmental conditions such as high salinity, extensive pH, a wide temperature range, and high pressure. Hence, marine-derived enzymes are capable of exhibiting remarkable properties due to their unique composition. In this review, we overviewed and discussed characteristics of marine enzymes as well as the sources of marine enzymes, ranging from primitive organisms to vertebrates, and presented the importance, advantages, and challenges of using marine enzymes with a summary of their applications in a variety of industries. Current biotechnological advancements need the study of novel marine enzymes that could be applied in a variety of ways. Resources of marine enzyme can benefit greatly for biotechnological applications duo to their biocompatible, ecofriendly and high effectiveness. It is beneficial to use the unique characteristics offered by marine enzymes to either develop new processes and products or improve existing ones. As a result, marine-derived enzymes have promising potential and are an excellent candidate for a variety of biotechnology applications and a future rise in the use of marine enzymes is to be anticipated.

Discrimination of psychrophilic enzymes using machine learning algorithms with amino acid composition descriptor

Introduction

Psychrophilic enzymes are a class of macromolecules with high catalytic activity at low temperatures. Cold-active enzymes possessing eco-friendly and cost-effective properties, are of huge potential application in detergent, textiles, environmental remediation, pharmaceutical as well as food industry. Compared with the time-consuming and labor-intensive experiments, computational modeling especially the machine learning (ML) algorithm is a high-throughput screening tool to identify psychrophilic enzymes efficiently.

Methods

In this study, the influence of 4 ML methods (support vector machines, K-nearest neighbor, random forest, and naïve Bayes), and three descriptors, i.e., amino acid composition (AAC), dipeptide combinations (DPC), and AAC + DPC on the model performance were systematically analyzed.

Results and discussion

Among the 4 ML methods, the support vector machine model based on the AAC descriptor using 5-fold cross-validation achieved the best prediction accuracy with 80.6%. The AAC outperformed than the DPC and AAC + DPC descriptors regardless of the ML methods used. In addition, amino acid frequencies between psychrophilic and non-psychrophilic proteins revealed that higher frequencies of Ala, Gly, Ser, and Thr, and lower frequencies of Glu, Lys, Arg, Ile,Val, and Leu could be related to the protein psychrophilicity. Further, ternary models were also developed that could classify psychrophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic proteins effectively. The predictive accuracy of the ternary classification model using AAC descriptor via the support vector machine algorithm was 75.8%. These findings would enhance our insight into the cold-adaption mechanisms of psychrophilic proteins and aid in the design of engineered cold-active enzymes. Moreover, the proposed model could be used as a screening tool to identify novel cold-adapted proteins.

Improving the catalytic activity of a detergent-compatible serine protease by rational design

Serine proteases are among the most important biological additives in various industries such as detergents, leather, animal feed and food. A serine protease gene, Fgapt4, from Fusarium graminearum 2697 was identified, cloned and expressed in Pichia pastoris. The optimal pH and temperature of FgAPT4 were 8.5 and 40°C, respectively. The relative activity was >30% even at 10°C. It had a wide range of pH stability (4.0-12.0) and detergent compatibility. To improve the catalytic activity, a strategy combining molecular docking and evolutionary analysis was adopted. Twelve amino acid residue sites and three loops (A, B and C) were selected as potential hot spots that might play critical roles in the enzyme's functional properties. Twenty-eight mutants targeting changes in individual sites or loops were designed, and mutations with good performance were combined. The best mutant was FgAPT4-M3 (Q70N/D142S/A143S/loop C). The specific activity and catalytic efficiency of FgAPT4-M3 increased by 1.6 (1008.5 vs. 385.9 U/mg) and 2.2-fold (3565.1 vs. 1106.3/s/mM), respectively. Computational analyses showed that the greater flexibility of the substrate pocket may be responsible for the increased catalytic activity. In addition, its application in detergents indicated that FgAPT4-M3 has great potential in washing.

Characterization of a novel thermostable alkaline lipase derived from a compost metagenomic library and its potential application in the detergent industry

Using composted soil samples, a metagenomic library consisting of 36,000 clones was constructed. Then, a novel lipase, Lip54q, which belongs to the VIII family of lipolytic enzymes, was identified from the metagenomic library by functional screening. To explore the enzymatic properties of Lip54q, lip54q was heterologous expressed in Escherichia coli with a high expression level of recombinant protein up to 720 mg/L. The recombinant enzyme showed the highest activity (28,160 U/mg) against a C10 substrate at pH 9.0 and 47°C, and was stable at temperatures ≤50°C and pH 8.0-11.0. Of particular interest, the surfactants, Tween-20, Tween-80 and Tritonx-100, exhibited strong promoting effects on Lip54q activities regardless of whether low concentrations (0.1%) or high concentrations (10%) were used. Application studies of Lip54q using six commercial detergents indicated that the enzyme had strong tolerance and immersion resistance to all six detergents. The results of oil-stain removal experiments suggested that addition of the enzyme to various commercial detergents could significantly improve the abilities of these detergents to remove oil-stains. Furthermore, the results of a molecular docking analysis of Lip54q showed that both the C10 substrate and linoleic acid molecules could form hydrogen bond interactions with the catalytic amino acids, Ser-268, Glu-168, and Asp-192, in the catalytic center of the enzyme, and the hydrogen bond distances were shorter. The electrostatic attraction between the enzyme and the substrate formed by the hydrogen bond with a shorter distance is stronger, which is conducive to the formation of a more stable complex between the enzyme and the substrate, thus increasing the activity of the enzyme to such substrate. These results 1ay a good foundation for application of this enzyme in the detergent industry in the future.

Plasmonic photothermal activation of an organosilica shielded cold-adapted lipase co-immobilised with gold nanoparticles on silica particles

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), owing to their intrinsic plasmonic properties, are widely used in applications ranging from nanotechnology and nanomedicine to catalysis and bioimaging. Capitalising on the ability of AuNPs to generate nanoscale heat upon optical excitation, we designed a nanobiocatalyst with enhanced cryophilic properties. It consists of gold nanoparticles and enzyme molecules, co-immobilised onto a silica scaffold, and shielded within a nanometre-thin organosilica layer. To produce such a hybrid system, we developed and optimized a synthetic method allowing efficient AuNP covalent immobilisation on the surface of silica particles (SPs). Our procedure allows to reach a dense and homogeneous AuNP surface coverage. After enzyme co-immobilisation, a nanometre-thin organosilica layer was grown on the surface of the SPs. This layer was designed to fulfil the dual function of protecting the enzyme from the surrounding environment and allowing the confinement, at the nanometre scale, of the heat diffusing from the AuNPs after surface plasmon resonance photothermal activation. To establish this proof of concept, we used an industrially relevant lipase enzyme, namely Lipase B from Candida Antarctica (CalB). Herein, we demonstrate the possibility to photothermally activate the so-engineered enzymes at temperatures as low as -10 °C.

Cold-Active Lipases and Esterases: A Review on Recombinant Overexpression and Other Essential Issues

Cold environments characterised by diverse temperatures close to or below the water freezing point dominate about 80% of the Earth's biosphere. One of the survival strategies adopted by microorganisms living in cold environments is their expression of cold-active enzymes that enable them to perform an efficient metabolic flux at low temperatures necessary to thrive and reproduce under those constraints. Cold-active enzymes are ideal biocatalysts that can reduce the need for heating procedures and improve industrial processes' quality, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness. Despite their wide applications, their industrial usage is still limited, and the major contributing factor is the lack of complete understanding of their structure and cold adaptation mechanisms. The current review looked at the recombinant overexpression, purification, and recent mechanism of cold adaptation, various approaches for purification, and three-dimensional (3D) crystal structure elucidation of cold-active lipases and esterase.

Metagenomic views on taxonomic and functional profiles of the Himalayan Tsomgo cold lake and unveiling its deterzome potential

Cold habitat is considered a potential source for detergent industry enzymes. This study aims at the metagenomic investigation of Tsomgo lake for taxonomic and functional annotation, unveiling the deterzome potential of the residing microbiota at this site. The present investigation revealed molecular profiling of microbial community structure and functional potential of the high-altitude Tsomgo lake samples of two different temperatures, harvested during March and August. Bacteria were found to be the most dominant phyla, with traces of genomic pieces of evidence belonging to archaea, viruses, and eukaryotes. Proteobacteria and Actinobacteria were noted to be the most abundant bacterial phyla in the cold lake. In-depth metagenomic investigation of the cold aquatic habitat revealed novel genes encoding detergent enzymes, amylase, protease, and lipase. Further, metagenome-assembled genomes (MAGs) belonging to the psychrophilic bacterium, Arthrobacter alpinus, were constructed from the metagenomic data. The annotation depicted the presence of detergent enzymes and genes for low-temperature adaptation in Arthrobacter alpinus. Psychrophilic microbial isolates were screened for lipase, protease, and amylase activities to further strengthen the metagenomic findings. A novel strain of Acinetobacter sp. was identified with the dual enzymatic activity of protease and amylase. The bacterial isolates exhibited hydrolyzing activity at low temperatures. This metagenomic study divulged novel genomic resources for detergent industry enzymes, and the bacterial isolates secreting cold-active amylase, lipase, and protease enzymes. The findings manifest that Tsomgo lake is a potential bioresource of cold-active enzymes, vital for various industrial applications.

Characterization of a novel detergent-resistant type I pullulanase from Bacillus megaterium Y103 and its application in laundry detergent

This study aims to find a moderate pullulanase for detergent industry. The pulY103B gene (2217 bp) from Bacillus megaterium Y103 was cloned and expressed in Escherichia coli. PulY103B contained four conserved regions of glycoside hydrolase family (GH) 13 and the typical sequence of type I pullulanase. The optimal reaction conditions of PulY103B were pH 6.5 and 40 °C. In addition, it remained stable below 40 °C and over 80% of activity was retained at pH ranging from 6.0 to 8.5. The best substrate for the enzyme was pullulan. Furthermore, it exhibited activity toward wheat starch (36.5%) and soluble starch (33.4%) but had no activity toward amylose and glycogen. Maltotriose and maltohexaose were major pullulan hydrolysis products. Soluble starch and amylopectin were mainly hydrolyzed into maltotetraose. These results indicated that PulY103B is a novel type I pullulanase with transglycosylation activity via formation of α-1,4-glucosidic linkages. Moreover, PulY103B was strongly stimulated by nonionic detergents [viz, Tween 20 (10%), Tween 80 (1%), Triton X-100 (20%)] and commercial liquid detergents (3.0 g/L). Wash performance tests demonstrated that the mixture of PulY103B and detergent removed starch-based stains better than using detergent alone (p < 0.05). Therefore, this pullulanase has big potential as a detergent additive.

Production of cold-active pectinases by three novel Cladosporium species isolated from Egypt and application of the most active enzyme

Cladosporium parasphaerospermum, Cladosporium chlamydosporigenum, and Cladosporium compactisporum have all been discovered and characterized as new Cladosporium species. The three new species seemed to generate cold-active pectinases with high activity at pH 6.0 and 10 °C, pH 6.0 and 15 °C, and pH 5.0 and 15 °C, respectively, with the most active being C. parasphaerospermum pectinase. In submerged fermentation (SmF), C. parasphaerospermum produced the most cold-active pectinase with the highest activity and specific activity (28.84 U/mL and 3797 U/mg) after 8 days. C. parasphaerospermum cold-active pectinase was isolated using DEAE-Cellulose anion exchange resin and a Sephadex G 100 gel filtration column. The enzyme was purified 214.4-fold and 406.4-fold greater than the fermentation medium using DEAE-cellulose and Sephadex G 100, respectively. At pH 7.0 and 10 °C, pure pectinase had the highest activity (6684 U/mg), with Km and Vmax determined to be 26.625 mg/mL and 312.5 U/min, respectively. At 5 mM/mL, EDTA, MgCl2, and SDS inhibited the activity of pure pectinase by 99.21, 96.03, and 94.45%, respectively. The addition of 10 U/mL pure pectinase enhanced the yield of apple, orange, apricot, and peach juice by 17, 20, 13, and 24%, respectively, and improved the clarity and colour of orange juice by 194 and 339%, respectively. We can now add cold-active pectinase production to the long list of Cladosporium species that have been identified. We also report three new species that can be used in biotechnological solutions as active microbial pectinase producers. Although further research is needed, these distinct species might be used to decompose difficult and resistant pertinacious wastes as well as clear fruit juices.

Cold-Active Enzymes and Their Potential Industrial Applications-A Review

More than 70% of our planet is covered by extremely cold environments, nourishing a broad diversity of microbial life. Temperature is the most significant parameter that plays a key role in the distribution of microorganisms on our planet. Psychrophilic microorganisms are the most prominent inhabitants of the cold ecosystems, and they possess potential cold-active enzymes with diverse uses in the research and commercial sectors. Psychrophiles are modified to nurture, replicate, and retain their active metabolic activities in low temperatures. Their enzymes possess characteristics of maximal activity at low to adequate temperatures; this feature makes them more appealing and attractive in biotechnology. The high enzymatic activity of psychrozymes at low temperatures implies an important feature for energy saving. These enzymes have proven more advantageous than their mesophilic and thermophilic counterparts. Therefore, it is very important to explore the efficiency and utility of different psychrozymes in food processing, pharmaceuticals, brewing, bioremediation, and molecular biology. In this review, we focused on the properties of cold-active enzymes and their diverse uses in different industries and research areas. This review will provide insight into the areas and characteristics to be improved in cold-active enzymes so that potential and desired enzymes can be made available for commercial purposes.

Novel, acidic, and cold-adapted glycoside hydrolase family 8 endo-β-1,4-glucanase from an Antarctic lichen-associated bacterium, Lichenicola cladoniae PAMC 26568

Endo-β-1,4-glucanase is a crucial glycoside hydrolase (GH) involved in the decomposition of cellulosic materials. In this study, to discover a novel cold-adapted β-1,4-D-glucan-degrading enzyme, the gene coding for an extracellular endo-β-1,4-glucanase (GluL) from Lichenicola cladoniae PAMC 26568, an Antarctic lichen (Cladonia borealis)-associated bacterium, was identified and recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli BL21. The GluL gene (1044-bp) encoded a non-modular polypeptide consisting of a single catalytic GH8 domain, which shared the highest sequence identity of 55% with that of an uncharacterized protein from Gluconacetobacter takamatsuzukensis (WP_182950054). The recombinant endo-β-1,4-glucanase (rGluL: 38.0 kDa) most efficiently degraded sodium carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) at pH 4.0 and 45°C, and showed approximately 23% of its maximum degradation activity even at 3°C. The biocatalytic activity of rGluL was noticeably enhanced by >1.3-fold in the presence of 1 mM Mn2+ or NaCl at concentrations between 0.1 and 0.5 M, whereas the enzyme was considerably downregulated by 1 mM Hg2+ and Fe2+ together with 5 mM N-bromosuccinimide and 0.5% sodium dodecyl sulfate. rGluL is a true endo-β-1,4-glucanase, which could preferentially decompose D-cellooligosaccharides consisting of 3 to 6 D-glucose, CMC, and barley β-glucan, without other additional glycoside hydrolase activities. The specific activity (15.1 U mg-1) and k cat/K m value (6.35 mg-1 s-1mL) of rGluL toward barley β-glucan were approximately 1.8- and 2.2-fold higher, respectively, compared to its specific activity (8.3 U mg-1) and k cat/K m value (2.83 mg-1 s-1mL) toward CMC. The enzymatic hydrolysis of CMC, D-cellotetraose, and D-cellohexaose yielded primarily D-cellobiose, accompanied by D-glucose, D-cellotriose, and D-cellotetraose. However, the cleavage of D-cellopentaose by rGluL resulted in the production of only D-cellobiose and D-cellotriose. The findings of the present study imply that rGluL is a novel, acidic, and cold-adapted GH8 endo-β-1,4-glucanase with high specific activity, which can be exploited as a promising candidate in low-temperature processes including textile and food processes.

Some Clues about Enzymes from Psychrophilic Microorganisms

Enzymes purified from psychrophilic microorganisms prove to be efficient catalysts at low temperatures and possess a great potential for biotechnological applications. The low-temperature catalytic activity has to come from specific structural fluctuations involving the active site region, however, the relationship between protein conformational stability and enzymatic activity is subtle. We provide a survey of the thermodynamic stability of globular proteins and their rationalization grounded in a theoretical approach devised by one of us. Furthermore, we provide a link between marginal conformational stability and protein flexibility grounded in the harmonic approximation of the vibrational degrees of freedom, emphasizing the occurrence of long-wavelength and excited vibrations in all globular proteins. Finally, we offer a close view of three enzymes: chloride-dependent α-amylase, citrate synthase, and β-galactosidase.

Industrial Biotechnology Based on Enzymes From Extreme Environments

Biocatalysis is crucial for a green, sustainable, biobased economy, and this has driven major advances in biotechnology and biocatalysis over the past 2 decades. There are numerous benefits to biocatalysis, including increased selectivity and specificity, reduced operating costs and lower toxicity, all of which result in lower environmental impact of industrial processes. Most enzymes available commercially are active and stable under a narrow range of conditions, and quickly lose activity at extremes of ion concentration, temperature, pH, pressure, and solvent concentrations. Extremophilic microorganisms thrive under extreme conditions and produce robust enzymes with higher activity and stability under unconventional circumstances. The number of extremophilic enzymes, or extremozymes, currently available are insufficient to meet growing industrial demand. This is in part due to difficulty in cultivation of extremophiles in a laboratory setting. This review will present an overview of extremozymes and their biotechnological applications. Culture-independent and genomic-based methods for study of extremozymes will be presented.

Structure-Guided Engineering of a Family IV Cold-Adapted Esterase Expands Its Substrate Range

Cold active esterases have gained great interest in several industries. The recently determined structure of a family IV cold active esterase (EstN7) from Bacillus cohnii strain N1 was used to expand its substrate range and to probe its commercially valuable substrates. Database mining suggested that triacetin was a potential commercially valuable substrate for EstN7, which was subsequently proved experimentally with the final product being a single isomeric product, 1,2-glyceryl diacetate. Enzyme kinetics revealed that EstN7’s activity is restricted to C2 and C4 substrates due to a plug at the end of the acyl binding pocket that blocks access to a buried water-filled cavity. Residues M187, N211 and W206 were identified as key plug forming residues. N211A stabilised EstN7 allowing incorporation of the destabilising M187A mutation. The M187A-N211A double mutant had the broadest substrate range, capable of hydrolysing a C8 substrate. W206A did not appear to have any significant effect on substrate range either alone or when combined with the double mutant. Thus, the enzyme kinetics and engineering together with a recently determined structure of EstN7 provide new insights into substrate specificity and the role of acyl binding pocket plug residues in determining family IV esterase stability and substrate range.

Sustainable Upcycling of Fisheries and Aquaculture Wastes Using Fish-Derived Cold-Adapted Proteases

The fisheries and aquaculture industries are some of the major economic sectors in the world. However, these industries generate significant amounts of wastes that need to be properly managed to avoid serious health and environmental issues. Recent advances in marine waste valorization indicate that fish waste biomass represents an abundant source of high-value biomolecules including enzymes, functional proteins, bioactive peptides, and omega-3 rich oils. Enzyme-assisted processes, for the recovery of these value-added biomolecules, have gained interest over chemical-based processes due to their cost-effectiveness as well as their green and eco-friendly aspects. Currently, the majority of commercially available proteases that are used to recover value-added compounds from fisheries and aquaculture wastes are mesophilic and/or thermophilic that require significant energy input and can lead to unfavorable reactions (i.e., oxidation). Cold-adapted proteases extracted from cold-water fish species, on the other hand, are active at low temperatures but unstable at higher temperatures which makes them interesting from both environmental and economic points of view by upcycling fish waste as well as by offering substantial energy savings. This review provides a general overview of cold-adapted proteolytic enzymes from cold-water fish species and highlights the opportunities they offer in the valorization of fisheries and aquaculture wastes.

Enzyme Immobilization and Co-Immobilization: Main Framework, Advances and Some Applications

Enzymes are outstanding (bio)catalysts, not solely on account of their ability to increase reaction rates by up to several orders of magnitude but also for the high degree of substrate specificity, regiospecificity and stereospecificity. The use and development of enzymes as robust biocatalysts is one of the main challenges in biotechnology. However, despite the high specificities and turnover of enzymes, there are also drawbacks. At the industrial level, these drawbacks are typically overcome by resorting to immobilized enzymes to enhance stability. Immobilization of biocatalysts allows their reuse, increases stability, facilitates process control, eases product recovery, and enhances product yield and quality. This is especially important for expensive enzymes, for those obtained in low fermentation yield and with relatively low activity. This review provides an integrated perspective on (multi)enzyme immobilization that abridges a critical evaluation of immobilization methods and carriers, biocatalyst metrics, impact of key carrier features on biocatalyst performance, trends towards miniaturization and detailed illustrative examples that are representative of biocatalytic applications promoting sustainability.

A Review in Linear Alkylbenzene (LAB) Production Processes in the Petrochemical Industry

Linear alkylbenzene (LAB) is a cost-effective and biodegradable intermediate in the production of detergents and surfactants. Recently, due to the spread of the Coronavirus and the high global need for detergent, the production of LAB is essential. Kerosene is the raw material of linear paraffin with high purity, which are finally converted to linear olefins by dehydrogenation. The linear mono-olefins react with benzene in the existence of the catalyst to produce LAB which is used to produce linear alkylbenzene sulfonate (LAS), as a biodegradable detergent. The main methods for the production of LAB, including HF and Detal processes were studied and compared with each other. In Detal method, many compounds such as zeolites and metal oxides have been used to make solid catalysts with selectivity, long life, economic efficiency and high safety. Nowadays, most LAB production units have used the Detal process. In this review, the production of LAB was investigated, the influential factors and the advantages, disadvantages and limitations of each method were also investigated. The product quality, process economics, sales market, and the quantitative and qualitative properties of LAB have also been investigated. Also, the exact mechanism of LAB production by HF acid was described.

Structural and functional adaptation in extremophilic microbial α-amylases

Maintaining stable native conformation of a protein under a given ecological condition is the prerequisite for survival of organisms. Extremophilic bacteria and archaea have evolved to adapt under extreme conditions of temperature, pH, salt, and pressure. Molecular adaptations of proteins under these conditions are essential for their survival. These organisms have the capability to maintain stable, native conformations of proteins under extreme conditions. The enzymes produced by the extremophiles are also known as extremozyme, which are used in several industries. Stability and functionality of extremozymes under varying temperature, pH, and solvent conditions are the most desirable requirement of industry. α-Amylase is one of the most important enzymes used in food, pharmaceutical, textile, and detergent industries. This enzyme is produced by diverse microorganisms including various extremophiles. Therefore, understanding its stability is important from fundamental as well as an applied point of view. Each class of extremophiles has a distinctive set of dominant non-covalent interactions which are important for their stability. Static information obtained by comparative analysis of amino acid sequence and atomic resolution structure provides information on the prevalence of particular amino acids or a group of non-covalent interactions. Protein folding studies give the information about thermodynamic and kinetic stability in order to understand dynamic aspect of molecular adaptations. In this review, we have summarized information on amino acid sequence, structure, stability, and adaptability of α-amylases from different classes of extremophiles.

Compatibility and Washing Performance of Compound Protease Detergent

Protease is the main enzyme of detergent. Through the combination of different proteases and the combination of protease and detergent additives, it can adapt to different washing conditions to improve the washing effect. In this experiment, whiteness determination, microscope scanning, Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy were used to detect the whiteness values of the cloth pieces before and after washing, as well as the stain residue between the fibers on the surface of the cloth pieces. The protease detergent formula with better decontamination and anti-deposition effects was selected. The combination of alkaline protease, keratinase, and trypsin was cost-effective in removing stains. Polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that the molecular weight of the protein significantly changed after adding the enzyme preparation during washing, and the molecular weight of the protein was directly proportional to protein redeposition. The composite protease had a better comprehensive decontamination effect, and when compatible with suitable surfactants, anti-redeposition agents, and water-softening agents, the compound protease detergent exhibited a stronger decontamination ability than commercial detergents.

Strategies and progress in synthetic textile fiber biodegradability

Abstract

The serious issue of textile waste accumulation has raised attention on biodegradability as a possible route to support sustainable consumption of textile fibers. However, synthetic textile fibers that dominate the market, especially poly(ethylene terephthalate) (PET), resist biological degradation, creating environmental and waste management challenges. Because pure natural fibers, like cotton, both perform well for consumer textiles and generally meet certain standardized biodegradability criteria, inspiration from the mechanisms involved in natural biodegradability are leading to new discoveries and developments in biologically accelerated textile waste remediation for both natural and synthetic fibers. The objective of this review is to present a multidisciplinary perspective on the essential bio-chemo-physical requirements for textile materials to undergo biodegradation, taking into consideration the impact of environmental or waste management process conditions on biodegradability outcomes. Strategies and recent progress in enhancing synthetic textile fiber biodegradability are reviewed, with emphasis on performance and biodegradability behavior of poly(lactic acid) (PLA) as an alternative biobased, biodegradable apparel textile fiber, and on biological strategies for addressing PET waste, including industrial enzymatic hydrolysis to generate recyclable monomers. Notably, while pure PET fibers do not biodegrade within the timeline of any standardized conditions, recent developments with process intensification and engineered enzymes show that higher enzymatic recycling efficiency for PET polymer has been achieved compared to cellulosic materials. Furthermore, combined with alternative waste management practices, such as composting, anaerobic digestion and biocatalyzed industrial reprocessing, the development of synthetic/natural fiber blends and other strategies are creating opportunities for new biodegradable and recyclable textile fibers.

Article Highlights

Regulated strategies of cold-adapted microorganisms in response to cold: a review

There are a large number of active cold-adapted microorganisms in the perennial cold environment. Due to their high-efficiency and energy-saving catalytic properties, cold-adapted microorganisms have become valuable natural resources with potential in various biological fields. In this study, a series of cold response strategies for microorganisms were summarized. This mainly involves the regulation of cell membrane fluidity, synthesis of cold adaptation proteins, regulators and metabolic changes, energy supply, and reactive oxygen species. Also, the potential of biocatalysts produced by cold-adapted microorganisms including cold-active enzymes, ice-binding proteins, polyhydroxyalkanoates, and surfactants was introduced, which provided a guidance for expanding its application values. Overall, new insights were obtained on response strategies of microorganisms to cold environments in this review. This will deepen the understanding of the cold tolerance mechanism of cold-adapted microorganisms, thus promoting the establishment and application of low-temperature biotechnology.

Structure and in silico simulations of a cold-active esterase reveals its prime cold-adaptation mechanism

Here we determined the structure of a cold active family IV esterase (EstN7) cloned from Bacillus cohnii strain N1. EstN7 is a dimer with a classical α/β hydrolase fold. It has an acidic surface that is thought to play a role in cold-adaption by retaining solvation under changed water solvent entropy at lower temperatures. The conformation of the functionally important cap region is significantly different to EstN7's closest relatives, forming a bridge-like structure with reduced helical content providing greater access to the active site through more than one substrate access tunnel. However, dynamics do not appear to play a major role in cold adaption. Molecular dynamics at different temperatures, rigidity analysis, normal mode analysis and geometric simulations of motion confirm the flexibility of the cap region but suggest that the rest of the protein is largely rigid. Rigidity analysis indicates the distribution of hydrophobic tethers is appropriate to colder conditions, where the hydrophobic effect is weaker than in mesophilic conditions due to reduced water entropy. Thus, it is likely that increased substrate accessibility and tolerance to changes in water entropy are important for of EstN7's cold adaptation rather than changes in dynamics.

Molecular characterization of lipase from a psychrotrophic bacterium Pseudomonas sp. CRBC14

Lipases from Pseudomonas species are particularly useful due to their broader biocatalytic applications and temperature activity. In this study, we amplified the gene encoding wild-type cold-active lipase from the genome of psychrotrophic bacterium isolated from the Himalayan glacier. The isolated CRBC14 strain was identified as Pseudomonas sp. based on the 16S rRNA gene sequence. Lipase activity was determined by observing the hydrolysis zone on nutrient agar containing tributyrin (1%, v/v). The sequence analysis of cold-active lipase revealed a protein of 611 amino acids with a calculated molecular mass of 63.71 kDa. The three-dimensional structure of this lipase was generated through template-supported modeling. Distinct techniques stamped the model quality, following which the binding free energies of tributyrin and oleic acid in the complex state with this enzymatic protein were predicted through molecular mechanics generalized born surface area (MMGBSA). A relative comparison of binding free energy values of these substrates indicated tributyrin's comparatively higher binding propensity towards the lipase. Using molecular docking, we evaluated the binding activity of cold-active lipase against tributyrin and oleic acid. Our docking analysis revealed that the lipase had a higher affinity for tributyrin than oleic acid, as evidenced by our measurement of the hydrolysis zone on two media plates. This study will help to understand the bacterial diversity of unexplored Himalayan glaciers and the possible application of their cold-adapted enzymes.

Optimization of fermentation conditions for production of neutral metalloprotease by Bacillus subtilis SCK6 and its application in goatskin-dehairing

In this study, a high protease-producing strain was screened by spread plate method and identified by molecular biology and morphological identification. It was identified as Bacillus sp. LCB14. A neutral protease gene was cloned and heterologous expressed by B. subtilis SCK6. Then, the recombinant protease was used to dehair the goat skins. The fermentation conditions of neutral protease production by B. subtilis SCK6 were optimized. The single factor experiments, Plackett-Burma experiment, and response surface method were conducted to determine fermentation medium and culture conditions. The optimized medium contained corn meal 49 g/L, soluble starch 28 g/L, soybean meal 17 g/L, corn steep liquor powder 8 g/L, yeast extract 10 g/L, Na₂HPO₄ 2.3 g/L, KH₂PO₄ 1.9 g/L, MgSO₄ 0.5 g/L, MnCl₂ 0.1 g/L and ZnSO₄ 0.05 g/L. The optimized culture conditions were 35 °C and pH 7.0. Under the optimum conditions, the recombinant strain reached 33467.28 U/mL after 72 hr ferment. Moreover, by fed batch in 30 L fermenters, neutral protease production reached 39,440.78 U/mL and shortened fermentation time from 72 hr to 46 hr. Finally, the crude enzyme was utilized to replace sodium sulfide for dehairing of goatskins. The enzymatic dehaired pelts were white, smooth, and soft; the grain side of enzymatic dehaired pelts were clear; there was no obvious damage to the grain side of enzymatic dehaired pelts by visual observation and tactile test. Furthermore, there were no hair roots, hair follicles and other glands in enzymatic dehaired belts, and the collagen fibers of enzymatic dehaired belt were dispersed well by histological analysis.

Biotechnological potential of psychrophilic microorganisms as the source of cold-active enzymes in food processing applications

Microorganisms striving in extreme environments and exhibiting optimal growth and reproduction at low temperatures, otherwise known as psychrophilic microorganisms, are potential sources of cold-active enzymes. Owing to higher stability and cold activity, these enzymes are gaining enormous attention in numerous industrial bioprocesses. Applications of several cold-active enzymes have been established in the food industry, e.g., β-galactosidase, pectinase, proteases, amylases, xylanases, pullulanases, lipases, and β-mannanases. The enzyme engineering approaches and the accumulating knowledge of protein structure and function have made it possible to improve the catalytic properties of interest and express the candidate enzyme in a heterologous host for a higher level of enzyme production. This review compiles the relevant and recent information on the potential uses of different cold-active enzymes in the food industry.

Anti freeze proteins (Afp): Properties, sources and applications - A review

Extreme cold marine and freshwater temperatures (below 4 °C) induce massive deterioration to the cell membranes of organisms resulting in the formation of ice crystals, consequently causing organelle damage or cell death. One of the adaptive mechanisms organisms have evolved to thrive in cold environments is the production of antifreeze proteins with the functional capabilities to withstand frigid temperatures. Antifreeze proteins are extensively identified in different cold-tolerant species and they facilitate the persistence of cold-adapted organisms by decreasing the freezing point of their body fluids. Various structurally diverse types of antifreeze proteins detected possess the ability to modify ice crystal growth by thermal hysteresis and ice recrystallization inhibition. The unique properties of antifreeze proteins have made them a promising resource in industry, biomedicine, food storage and cryobiology. This review collates the findings of the various studies carried out in the past and the recent developments observed in the properties, functional mechanisms, classification, distinct sources and the ever-increasing applications of antifreeze proteins. This review also summarizes the possibilities of the way forward to identify new avenues of research on anti-freeze proteins.