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Ma M, Xie Y, Liu J, Wu L, Liu Y, Qin X. Biological effects of IL-21 on immune cells and its potential for cancer treatment. Int Immunopharmacol 2024; 126:111154. [PMID: 37977064 DOI: 10.1016/j.intimp.2023.111154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2023] [Revised: 10/28/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/19/2023]
Abstract
Interleukin-21 (IL-21), a member of the IL-2 cytokine family, is one of the most important effector and messenger molecules in the immune system. Produced by various immune cells, IL-21 has pleiotropic effects on innate and adaptive immune responses via regulation of natural killer, T, and B cells. An anti-tumor role of IL-21 has also been reported in the literature, as it may support cell proliferation or on the contrary induce growth arrest or apoptosis of the tumor cell. Anti-tumor effect of IL-21 enhances when combined with other agents that target tumor cells, immune regulatory circuits, or other immune-enhancing molecules. Therefore, understanding the biology of IL-21 in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and reducing its systemic toxic and side effects is crucial to ensure the maximum benefits of anti-tumor treatment strategies. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview on the biological functions, roles in tumors, and the recent advances in preclinical and clinical research of IL-21 in tumor immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meichen Ma
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yuanyuan Xie
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jianhua Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Lina Wu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Yong Liu
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xiaosong Qin
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Shengjing Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China.
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2
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Berger A, Colpitts SJ, Zych M, Paige CJ. Engineered murine IL-21-secreting leukemia cells induce granzyme B + T cells and CD4 +CD44 +CD62L - effector memory cells while suppressing regulatory T cells, leading to long-term survival. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2023:10.1007/s00262-023-03442-2. [PMID: 37061631 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-023-03442-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 03/28/2023] [Indexed: 04/17/2023]
Abstract
We have explored the use of an IL-21 cell-based anti-leukemia treatment in a mouse model of acute lymphoblastic leukemia. 70Z/3 leukemia cells, engineered to secrete IL-21 and injected into the peritoneum of syngeneic mice, induced a strong anti-leukemia response resulting in 100% survival. Mice that mounted an IL-21-induced anti-leukemia immune response were immune to the parent cell line (no IL-21) when rechallenged.Above a certain threshold, IL-21 secretion correlated with improved survival compared to mice injected with parent 70Z/3 cells. IL-21 was detected in serum with peak levels on day 7, correlating with the maximum expansion of IL-21-secreting 70Z/3 cells which subsequently were eliminated. Mice injected with IL-21-secreting leukemia cells had elevated numbers of granzyme B+ CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in the peritoneum, compared to mice injected with the parent cell line. Regulatory T cells, which increased greatly in 70Z/3-injected mice, failed to do so in mice injected with IL-21-secreting cells. Upon rechallenge, IL-21-primed mice went through a secondary immune response, primarily requiring CD4+ T cells, triggering a significant increase of CD4+CD44+CD62L- effector memory T cells. Adoptive transfer of T cells from IL21-primed/rechallenged hosts into naïve mice was successful, indicating that IL-21-primed antigen-experienced T cells convey immunity to naïve mice.Our study shows that delivery of IL-21 in a cell-based anti-leukemia protocol has the potential to induce a potent immune response leading to cancer elimination and long-term immunity-properties which make IL-21 an attractive candidate for cancer immunotherapy. Protecting against tumor antigens as well as improving cancer immunity is justified, as current strategies are limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Berger
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Room 8-105, Toronto, ON, M5G 2M9, Canada.
| | - Sarah J Colpitts
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Room 8-105, Toronto, ON, M5G 2M9, Canada
- Department of Immunology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Toronto General Hospital Research Institute, Ajmera Transplant Centre, University Health Network, Toronto, Canada
| | - Morgan Zych
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Room 8-105, Toronto, ON, M5G 2M9, Canada
| | - Christopher J Paige
- Princess Margaret Cancer Centre, University Health Network, Room 8-105, Toronto, ON, M5G 2M9, Canada
- Department of Immunology, Temerty Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics, University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada
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3
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Roles for macrophage-polarizing interleukins in cancer immunity and immunotherapy. Cell Oncol (Dordr) 2022; 45:333-353. [PMID: 35587857 DOI: 10.1007/s13402-022-00667-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 02/16/2022] [Accepted: 02/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Macrophages are the most abundant and one of the most critical cells of tumor immunity. They provide a bridge between innate and adaptive immunity through releasing cytokines into the tumor microenvironment (TME). A number of interleukin (IL) cytokine family members is involved in shaping the final phenotype of macrophages toward either a classically-activated pro-inflammatory M1 state with anti-tumor activity or an alternatively-activated anti-inflammatory M2 state with pro-tumor activity. Shaping TME macrophages toward the M1 phenotype or recovering this phenotypic state may offer a promising therapeutic approach in patients with cancer. Here, we focus on the impact of macrophage-polarizing ILs on immune cells and IL-mediated cellular cross-interactions within the TME. The key aim of this review is to define therapeutic schedules for addressing ILs in cancer immunotherapy based on their multi-directional impacts in such a milieu. Gathering more knowledge on this area is also important for defining adverse effects related to cytokine therapy and addressing them for reinforcing the efficacy of immunotherapy against cancer.
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Zhao Y, Zhang Z, Lei W, Wei Y, Ma R, Wen Y, Wei F, Fan J, Xu Y, Chen L, Lyu K, Lin H, Wen W, Sun W. IL-21 Is an Accomplice of PD-L1 in the Induction of PD-1-Dependent Treg Generation in Head and Neck Cancer. Front Oncol 2021; 11:648293. [PMID: 34026621 PMCID: PMC8131831 DOI: 10.3389/fonc.2021.648293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T cells (Tregs) are immunosuppressive cells involved in antitumor immunity. However, the regulation of Treg generation by inflammation in the tumor microenvironment has not been carefully investigated. Here, we demonstrated that IL-21-polarized inflammation was enriched in the tumor microenvironment in head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC) and that IL-21 could promote PD-L1-induced Treg generation in a PD-1-dependent manner. Moreover, generated Tregs showed a greater ability to suppress the proliferation of tumor-associated antigen (TAA)-specific T cells than naturally occurring Tregs. Importantly, an anti-PD-1 antibody could inhibit only Treg expansion induced by clinical tumor explants with high expression of IL-21/PD-L1. In addition, neutralizing IL-21 could enhance the anti-PD-1 antibody-mediated inhibitory effect on Treg expansion. Furthermore, simultaneous high expression of IL-21 and PD-L1 was associated with more Treg infiltrates and predicted reduced overall and disease-free survival in patients with HNSCC. These findings indicate that IL-21 in the tumor microenvironment may promote PD-L1-induced, Treg-mediated immune escape in a PD-1-dependent manner and that an IL-21 neutralization strategy may enhance PD-1 blockade-based antitumor immunotherapy by targeting Treg-mediated immune evasion in patients with high expression of IL-21 and PD-L1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhao
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Zhiyu Zhang
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wenbin Lei
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yi Wei
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Renqiang Ma
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yihui Wen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Fanqin Wei
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jun Fan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yang Xu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Lin Chen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Kexing Lyu
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Hanqing Lin
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weiping Wen
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Sun
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China.,Guangzhou Key Laboratory of Otorhinolaryngology Head and Neck Surgery, The First Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China
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5
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Yang L, Wang G, Xia H. Molecular mechanism for impaired suppressive function of Tregs in autoimmune diseases: A summary of cell-intrinsic and cell-extrinsic factors. J Cell Mol Med 2020; 24:11056-11063. [PMID: 32881301 PMCID: PMC7576235 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.15743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Regulatory T (Treg) cells are responsible for maintaining immune homeostasis and preventing autoimmunity. In immune homeostasis condition, Tregs exert their suppressive function through inhibiting the proliferation of effector T cells. In response to environmental signals, Tregs display phenotypic heterogeneity and altered stability, which endows their suppressive function in a context-dependent manner. Compelling evidence indicates deficiency of Treg suppressive function is related to the immunopathogenesis of various autoimmune diseases. Consequently, it is vital to further our understanding of the molecular mechanism accounting for the regulation of Treg suppressive functions. In this review, we outline the current knowledge that highlights how cell-intrinsic factors, such as inflammatory cytokines, transcription factors, signalling pathways, post-translational modification (PTM), miRNAs, protein and protein complex, and cell-extrinsic factors orchestrate the suppressive function of Tregs. Improved understanding of the molecular mechanism related to the suppressive functional property of Tregs should provide new insights into autoimmunity and disease pathogenesis, which offers opportunity for identifying new therapeutic targets for Treg-related autoimmune diseases and cancers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luting Yang
- Laboratory of Gene Therapy, Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
| | - Gang Wang
- Department of Dermatology, Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an, China
| | - Haibin Xia
- Laboratory of Gene Therapy, Department of Biochemistry, College of Life Sciences, Shaanxi Normal University, Xi'an, China
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6
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Harvey RD, Carthon BC, Lewis C, Hossain MS, Zhang C, Chen Z, Harris WB, Alese OB, Shaib W, Bilen MA, Lawson DH, Wu C, Steuer CE, El-Rayes BF, Khuri FR, Lonial S, Waller EK, Ramalingam SS, Owonikoko TK. Phase 1 safety and pharmacodynamic study of lenalidomide combined with everolimus in patients with advanced solid malignancies with efficacy signal in adenoid cystic carcinoma. Br J Cancer 2020; 123:1228-1234. [PMID: 32704173 PMCID: PMC7553949 DOI: 10.1038/s41416-020-0988-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2019] [Revised: 06/15/2020] [Accepted: 07/01/2020] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Purpose: The combination of a mammalian target of rapamycin inhibitor and lenalidomide showed enhanced preclinical cytotoxicity. We conducted a phase 1 study in advanced solid tumour patients to assess safety, efficacy and pharmacodynamic (PD) outcomes. Methods We employed a 3+3 dose escalation design to establish the safety and recommended phase 2 doses (RP2D) of daily everolimus and lenalidomide in patients with advanced solid tumours. The starting doses were 5 and 10 mg, respectively, with planned escalation to maximum single-agent doses of 10 and 25 mg in the absence of dose-limiting toxicity. PD endpoints of lymphocyte subsets and immune cytokines were assessed in peripheral blood using multiparameter flow cytometry and LUMINEX assay. Efficacy was evaluated by cross-sectional imaging after every two cycles of treatment. Results The study enrolled 44 patients, median age of 58 years and 28 males (63.6%). The RP2D was established as 10 and 25 mg daily continuously for everolimus and lenalidomide. Common (>5%) grade ≥3 adverse events included rash (19%), neutropenia (19%), hypokalaemia (11%) and fatigue (9%). Best efficacy outcomes in 36 evaluable patients were partial response in 5 (13.8%), stable disease in 24 (55.8%) and progressive disease in 7 (19.4%) patients. PD assessment revealed significant association of cytokine levels (interleukin-2 (IL2), IL21 and IL17), baseline activated and total CD8+ lymphocytes and change in B cell lymphocytes and activated NK cells with clinical benefit. Conclusions The study demonstrated the safety of everolimus and lenalidomide with promising efficacy signal in thyroid and adenoid cystic cancers. Clinical Trial Registration NCT01218555
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Affiliation(s)
- R Donald Harvey
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bradley C Carthon
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Colleen Lewis
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mohammad S Hossain
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Chao Zhang
- Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Statistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Zhengjia Chen
- Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Department of Statistics, Rollins School of Public Health, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Wayne B Harris
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Olatunji B Alese
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Walid Shaib
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Mehmet A Bilen
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David H Lawson
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Christina Wu
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Conor E Steuer
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Bassel F El-Rayes
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Fadlo R Khuri
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,American University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Sagar Lonial
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Edmund K Waller
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Suresh S Ramalingam
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.,Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Taofeek K Owonikoko
- Department of Hematology and Medical Oncology, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA. .,Winship Cancer Institute of Emory University, Atlanta, GA, USA.
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7
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Shen S, Sckisel G, Sahoo A, Lalani A, Otter DD, Pearson J, DeVoss J, Cheng J, Casey SC, Case R, Yang M, Low R, Daris M, Fan B, Agrawal NJ, Ali K. Engineered IL-21 Cytokine Muteins Fused to Anti-PD-1 Antibodies Can Improve CD8+ T Cell Function and Anti-tumor Immunity. Front Immunol 2020; 11:832. [PMID: 32457754 PMCID: PMC7225340 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.00832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Inhibitors that block the programmed cell death-1 (PD-1) pathway can potentiate endogenous antitumor immunity and have markedly improved cancer survival rates across a broad range of indications. However, these treatments work for only a minority of patients. The efficacy of anti-PD-1 inhibitors may be extended by cytokines, however, the incorporation of cytokines into therapeutic regimens has significant challenges. In their natural form when administered as recombinant proteins, cytokine treatments are often associated with low response rates. Most cytokines have a short half-life which limits their exposure and efficacy. In addition, cytokines can activate counterregulatory pathways, in the case of immune-potentiating cytokines this can lead to immune suppression and thereby diminish their potential efficacy. Improving the drug-like properties of natural cytokines using protein engineering can yield synthetic cytokines with improved bioavailability and tissue targeting, allowing for enhanced efficacy and reduced off-target effects. Using structure guided engineering we have designed a novel class of antibody-cytokine fusion proteins consisting of a PD-1 targeting antibody fused together with an interleukin-21 (IL-21) cytokine mutein. Our bifunctional fusion proteins can block PD-1/programmed death-ligand 1 (PD-L1) interaction whilst simultaneously delivering IL-21 cytokine to PD-1 expressing T cells. Targeted delivery of IL-21 can improve T cell function in a manner that is superior to anti-PD-1 monotherapy. Fusion of engineered IL-21 variants to anti-PD1 antibodies can improve the drug-like properties of IL-21 cytokine leading to improved cytokine serum half-life allowing for less frequent dosing. In addition, we show that targeted delivery of IL-21 can minimize any potential detrimental effect on local antigen-presenting cells. A highly attenuated IL-21 mutein variant (R9E:R76A) fused to a PD-1 antibody provides protection in a humanized mouse model of cancer that is refractory to anti-PD-1 monotherapy. Collectively, our preclinical data demonstrate that this approach may improve upon and extend the utility of anti-PD-1 therapeutics currently in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shanling Shen
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Gail Sckisel
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Anupama Sahoo
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Almin Lalani
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Doug Den Otter
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Josh Pearson
- Pharmacokinetics and Drug Metabolism, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Jason DeVoss
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Jay Cheng
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Stephanie C. Casey
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Ryan Case
- Discovery Attribute Sciences, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Melissa Yang
- Biologics Discovery, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, United States
| | - Ray Low
- Biologics Discovery, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, United States
| | - Mark Daris
- Biologics Discovery, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, United States
| | - Bin Fan
- Biologics Discovery, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, United States
| | - Neeraj J. Agrawal
- Biologics Discovery, Amgen Research, Thousand Oaks, CA, United States
| | - Khaled Ali
- Departments of Oncology Research, Amgen Research, South San Francisco, CA, United States
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8
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Chabab G, Bonnefoy N, Lafont V. IL-21 Signaling in the Tumor Microenvironment. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2020; 1240:73-82. [PMID: 32060889 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-38315-2_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
IL-21 is an immunomodulatory cytokine produced by natural killer (NK) cells and T cells that has pleiotropic roles in immune and nonimmune cells. IL-21 can modulate innate and specific immunity activities. It is a potent stimulator of T and natural killer cell-mediated antitumor immunity but also has pro-inflammatory functions in many tissues and is involved in oncogenesis. It is important to understand IL-21 biology in these different situations to ensure the maximal benefit of therapeutic strategies targeting this cytokine. This chapter summarizes IL-21 characteristics and signaling, its role in immune system components, and its use in cancer immunotherapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ghita Chabab
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, Université de Montpellier, Institut régional du Cancer de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Nathalie Bonnefoy
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, Université de Montpellier, Institut régional du Cancer de Montpellier, Montpellier, France
| | - Virginie Lafont
- IRCM, Institut de Recherche en Cancérologie de Montpellier, INSERM U1194, Université de Montpellier, Institut régional du Cancer de Montpellier, Montpellier, France.
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9
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Approaches to treat immune hot, altered and cold tumours with combination immunotherapies. Nat Rev Drug Discov 2019; 18:197-218. [PMID: 30610226 DOI: 10.1038/s41573-018-0007-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1922] [Impact Index Per Article: 384.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Immunotherapies are the most rapidly growing drug class and have a major impact in oncology and on human health. It is increasingly clear that the effectiveness of immunomodulatory strategies depends on the presence of a baseline immune response and on unleashing of pre-existing immunity. Therefore, a general consensus emerged on the central part played by effector T cells in the antitumour responses. Recent technological, analytical and mechanistic advances in immunology have enabled the identification of patients who are more likely to respond to immunotherapy. In this Review, we focus on defining hot, altered and cold tumours, the complexity of the tumour microenvironment, the Immunoscore and immune contexture of tumours, and we describe approaches to treat such tumours with combination immunotherapies, including checkpoint inhibitors. In the upcoming era of combination immunotherapy, it is becoming critical to understand the mechanisms responsible for hot, altered or cold immune tumours in order to boost a weak antitumour immunity. The impact of combination therapy on the immune response to convert an immune cold into a hot tumour will be discussed.
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10
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Irradiated Bladder Cancer Cells Expressing both GM-CSF and IL-21 versus Either GM-CSF or IL-21 Alone as Tumor Vaccine in a Mouse Xenograft Model. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2019; 2019:8262989. [PMID: 31467912 PMCID: PMC6699310 DOI: 10.1155/2019/8262989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 04/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have established the efficacy of irradiated cancer cells overexpressing GM-CSF or IL-21 as a vaccine. Here we examined whether the vaccine efficacy was greater when both factors were overexpressed together. MB49 bladder cancer cells were transfected with expression plasmid pT7TS encoding mouse GM-CSF and human IL-21, and then irradiated with 100 Gy at 4 days later. The cells (1×107 per animal) were injected subcutaneously into C57BL/6 mice at 0, 4, 8, and 12 days after inoculation with MB49 tumor xenografts. Control animals were injected with MB49 cells transfected with pT7TS encoding GM-CSF or IL-21 on its own. Tumor growth was monitored for 45 days and compared among the groups using repeated-measures ANOVA. Vaccination with irradiated MB49 cells did not affect xenograft growth. Vaccination with irradiated cells overexpressing GM-CSF or IL-21 alone significantly inhibited tumor growth and led to significantly more CD4+ CD8+ T cells and fewer CD4+ Foxp3+ T cells in the spleen and xenograft. These effects were even greater following vaccination with irradiated cells overexpressing both GM-CSF and IL-21. Irradiated bladder cancer cells overexpressing both GM-CSF and IL-21 are more effective than cells expressing either factor alone as a vaccine against bladder cancer.
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11
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IL-21 promotes allergic airway inflammation by driving apoptosis of FoxP3 + regulatory T cells. J Allergy Clin Immunol 2019; 143:2178-2189.e5. [PMID: 30654048 DOI: 10.1016/j.jaci.2018.11.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2018] [Revised: 10/05/2018] [Accepted: 11/30/2018] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND IL-21 is a key player of adaptive immunity, with well-established roles in B-cell and cytotoxic T-cell responses. IL-21 has been implicated in promotion of effector CD4+ T cells and inhibition of forkhead box P3-positive regulatory T (Treg) cells, but the mechanism and functional relevance of these findings remain controversial. OBJECTIVE We sought to understand the mechanisms by which IL-21 controls effector CD4+ cell responses and Treg cell homeostasis. METHODS We used IL-21 receptor-deficient mice to study the effect of IL-21 on T-cell responses in models of asthma and colitis. We used mixed bone marrow chimeras and adoptive transfer of naive CD4+ T cells and Treg cells into lymphopenic mice to assess the cell-intrinsic effects of IL-21. Using various in vitro T-cell assays, we characterized the mechanism of IL-21-mediated inhibition of Treg cells. RESULTS We show that IL-21 production by TH2 and follicular helper T/ex-follicular helper T cells promotes asthma by inhibiting Treg cells. Il21r-/- mice displayed reduced generation of TH2 cells and increased generation of Treg cells. In mixed chimeras we demonstrate that IL-21 promotes TH2 responses indirectly through inhibition of Treg cells. Depleting Treg cells in Il21r-/- mice restored TH2 generation and eosinophilia. Furthermore, IL-21 inhibited Treg cell generation in mice with colitis. Using competitive transfer of Il21r+/+ and Il21r-/- CD4+ cells, we show that IL-21 directly inhibited expansion of differentiated Treg cells but was dispensable for TH1/TH17 effectors. We show that IL-21 sensitizes Treg cells to apoptosis by interfering with the expression of Bcl-2 family genes. CONCLUSION IL-21 directly promotes apoptosis of Treg cells and therefore indirectly sustains generation of inflammatory TH cells and related effector responses.
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Meng X, Yu X, Dong Q, Xu X, Li J, Xu Q, Ma J, Zhou C. Distribution of circulating follicular helper T cells and expression of interleukin-21 and chemokine C-X-C ligand 13 in gastric cancer. Oncol Lett 2018; 16:3917-3922. [PMID: 30128008 DOI: 10.3892/ol.2018.9112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/09/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Circulating follicular helper T (cTfh) cells are a novel subset of cluster of differentiation (CD)4+ helper T cells. Interleukin (IL)-21 and C-X-C motif chemokine ligand (CXCL)13 are the principal effectors and chemotactic regulatory factors of Tfh. However, the roles of IL-21 and CXCL13 in gastric cancer have not yet been completely elucidated. The aim of the present study was to investigate the distribution of cTfh cells, and the expression of IL-21 and CXCL13 in patients with gastric cancer was evaluated in order to ascertain the significance and potential mechanisms of these effectors in gastric cancer. A total of 50 patients with gastric cancer were enrolled as the study subjects, with 30 healthy individuals selected as controls. The percentage of cTfh cells (cTfh%) in the peripheral blood was calculated using flow cytometry. They are identified in the present study as CD4+ chemokine C-X-C receptor (CXCR)5+ inducible T cell co-stimulator (ICOS)+ cells. The serum levels of IL-21 and CXCL13 were determined by ELISA. The cTfh% in the peripheral blood and the concentration of IL-21 and CXCL13 in the serum were significantly higher in patients with gastric cancer compared with the control group. cTfh% was significantly higher in patients with lymph node metastasis, Tumor-Node-Metastasis (TNM) stage III-IV and low differentiation. The concentrations of IL-21 and CXCL13 in patients with lymph node metastasis and/or TNM III-IV were significantly higher than in those without lymph node metastasis or with TNM I-II. There was a positive correlation between cTfh%/CXCL13 and IL-21/CXCL13, while there was no correlation between cTfh%/IL-21. cTfh cells and associated factors (IL-21/CXCL13) may be involved in the development and progression of gastric cancer. There may be mutual regulation among cTfh cells, IL-21 and CXCL13.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinying Meng
- Department of Health Care, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Xinjuan Yu
- Central Laboratories, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Quanjiang Dong
- Central Laboratories, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China.,Department of Gastroenterology, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Xiaona Xu
- Central Laboratories, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Jinghua Li
- Central Laboratories, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Qianqian Xu
- Department of Health Care, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Jian Ma
- Department of Health Care, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
| | - Changhong Zhou
- Department of Health Care, Qingdao Municipal Hospital, Qingdao, Shandong 266000, P.R. China
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Meng Q, Valentini D, Rao M, Liu Z, Xie S, Morgell A, Dodoo E, Löhr M, Rangelova E, Del Chiaro M, Ernberg I, Maeurer M. Prediction of improved survival in patients with pancreatic cancer via IL-21 enhanced detection of mesothelin epitope-reactive T-cell responses. Oncotarget 2018; 9:22451-22459. [PMID: 29854291 PMCID: PMC5976477 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.25121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Most patients with pancreatic cancer present with extensive metastasis at diagnosis, with a 5-year survival rate of approximately 5%, despite chemotherapy and surgery. New treatment modalities are needed to improve survival. Mesothelin is a tumor-associated antigen (TAA) in patients with pancreatic cancer that could be used to gauge cellular immune responses directed against transformed cells since up to 100 percent of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma cells have been shown to strongly express mesothelin. A prospective, observational study was carried out in twenty-six, chemotherapy-naïve patients with resectable pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma. Participants were between 48 and 81 years (median age: 64.5 years), 15 males and 11 females. All participants were clinically followed-up between 439 and 853 days post-surgery (n=14) or until death (n=12). Peripheral blood drawn on the day of surgery was stimulated with a mesothelin peptide pool (42 peptides, non-overlapping), individual mesothelin peptides, positive (anti-CD3 antibody, OKT3) and negative controls (medium) with or without adding IL-21. Kaplan-Meier estimators were used to gauge patients’ survival pattern in relation to mesothelin-specific IFN-γ responses. A survival benefit was linked with IFN-γ responses to peptides corresponding to mature mesothelin (p=0.018) and targeted recognition of the mesothelin601-615 epitope (MQEALSGTPCLLGPG) (p=0.006) in the presence of IL-21. Conversely, production of high levels of IFN-γ to OKT3 stimulation with IL-21 conditioning was associated with reduced survival of patients (p=0.016). Gauging anti-Mesothelin- directed immune responses will aid to identify patients i) in need of a more intensive clinical follow-up and ii) who may benefit from immunotherapeutic approaches targeting mesothelin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingda Meng
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology (TIM), Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Davide Valentini
- Centre for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (CAST), Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Martin Rao
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology (TIM), Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Zhenjiang Liu
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology (TIM), Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Shanshan Xie
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology (TIM), Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ann Morgell
- Pancreatic Surgery Unit, Division of Surgery, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ernest Dodoo
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology (TIM), Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Matthias Löhr
- Pancreatic Surgery Unit, Division of Surgery, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Elena Rangelova
- Pancreatic Surgery Unit, Division of Surgery, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Marco Del Chiaro
- Pancreatic Surgery Unit, Division of Surgery, Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology (CLINTEC), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ingemar Ernberg
- Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Markus Maeurer
- Division of Therapeutic Immunology (TIM), Department of Laboratory Medicine (LABMED), Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.,Centre for Allogeneic Stem Cell Transplantation (CAST), Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Stockholm, Sweden
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McCormack SE, Cruz CRY, Wright KE, Powell AB, Lang H, Trimble C, Keller MD, Fuchs E, Bollard CM. Human papilloma virus-specific T cells can be generated from naïve T cells for use as an immunotherapeutic strategy for immunocompromised patients. Cytotherapy 2018; 20:385-393. [PMID: 29331266 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcyt.2017.11.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/21/2017] [Revised: 11/21/2017] [Accepted: 11/24/2017] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Human papilloma virus (HPV) is a known cause of cervical cancer, squamous cell carcinoma and laryngeal cancer. Although treatments exist for HPV-associated malignancies, patients unresponsive to these therapies have a poor prognosis. Recent findings from vaccine studies suggest that T-cell immunity is essential for disease control. Because Epstein-Barr Virus (EBV)-specific T cells have been highly successful in treating or preventing EBV-associated tumors, we hypothesized that the development of a manufacturing platform for HPV-specific T cells from healthy donors could be used in a third-party setting to treat patients with high-risk/relapsed HPV-associated cancers. Most protocols for generating virus-specific T cells require prior exposure of the donor to the targeted virus and, because the seroprevalence of high-risk HPV types varies greatly by age and ethnicity, manufacturing of donor-derived HPV-specific T cells has proven challenging. We, therefore, made systematic changes to our current Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP)-compliant protocols to improve antigen presentation, priming and expansion for the manufacture of high-efficacy HPV-specific T cells. Like others, we found that current methodologies fail to expand HPV-specific T cells from most healthy donors. By optimizing dendritic cell maturation and function with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and interferon (IFN)γ, adding interleukin (IL)-21 during priming and depleting memory T cells, we achieved reliable expansion of T cells specific for oncoproteins E6 and E7 to clinically relevant amounts (mean, 578-fold expansion; n = 10), which were polyfunctional based on cytokine multiplex analysis. In the third-party setting, such HPV-specific T-cell products might serve as a potent salvage therapy for patients with HPV-associated diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E McCormack
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Conrad Russell Y Cruz
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Sheikh Zayed Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Kaylor E Wright
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Sheikh Zayed Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Allison B Powell
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Sheikh Zayed Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Haili Lang
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Cornelia Trimble
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael D Keller
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Division of Allergy and Immunology, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA
| | - Ephraim Fuchs
- The Sidney Kimmel Comprehensive Cancer Center, Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore, Maryland, USA
| | - Catherine M Bollard
- Program for Cell Enhancement and Technologies for Immunotherapy, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Sheikh Zayed Institute, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Division of Allergy and Immunology, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA; Division of Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Children's National Medical Center, Washington, DC, USA.
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Kim HJ, Kim SH, Kim TG, Park JY, Lee M, Kim DS, Lee MG. Interleukin-21 receptor signalling is not critically required for imiquimod-induced psoriasiform dermatitis in mice. Exp Dermatol 2018; 27:191-195. [PMID: 29220875 DOI: 10.1111/exd.13481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/30/2017] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Psoriasis is largely mediated by interleukin (IL)-23/T helper (Th) 17 axis, and IL-21 is a pleiotropic cytokine expressed by Th17 cells. Despite previously reported possible pathogenic roles of IL-21 in human psoriasis, we found that IL-21 receptor (IL-21R) signalling was not crucial for imiquimod-induced psoriatic inflammation, using IL-21R-/- mice. The severity of imiquimod-induced psoriatic manifestation and pro-inflammatory Th17 cytokine levels, IL-17A-producing γδ T cells and CD4+ T cells, and in vitro IL-17A production by γδ T cells after IL-23 stimulation was comparable between wild-type and IL-21R-/- mice. Collectively, IL-21R signalling was not critically involved in IMQ-induced psoriatic inflammation despite an increased IL-21 expression in the IMQ-treated mouse skin. Our data may represent the significant differences between human psoriasis and murine psoriasis model, and further studies using other models will be required to elucidate the role of IL-21 in psoriasis pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hee Joo Kim
- Department of dermatology, Gachon University Gil Medical Center, Incheon, Korea
| | - Sung Hee Kim
- Department of dermatology, Severance hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Tae-Gyun Kim
- Department of dermatology, Severance hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Je Yun Park
- Department of dermatology, Severance hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Minseok Lee
- Department of dermatology, Severance hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dae Suk Kim
- Department of dermatology, Severance hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Min-Geol Lee
- Department of dermatology, Severance hospital, Cutaneous Biology Research Institute and Brain Korea 21 PLUS Project for Medical Science, Yonsei University College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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