1
|
Yan L, Shi J, Zhu J. Cellular and molecular events in colorectal cancer: biological mechanisms, cell death pathways, drug resistance and signalling network interactions. Discov Oncol 2024; 15:294. [PMID: 39031216 DOI: 10.1007/s12672-024-01163-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 07/15/2024] [Indexed: 07/22/2024] Open
Abstract
Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of cancer-related deaths worldwide, affecting millions each year. It emerges from the colon or rectum, parts of the digestive system, and is closely linked to both genetic and environmental factors. In CRC, genetic mutations such as APC, KRAS, and TP53, along with epigenetic changes like DNA methylation and histone modifications, play crucial roles in tumor development and treatment responses. This paper delves into the complex biological underpinnings of CRC, highlighting the pivotal roles of genetic alterations, cell death pathways, and the intricate network of signaling interactions that contribute to the disease's progression. It explores the dysregulation of apoptosis, autophagy, and other cell death mechanisms, underscoring the aberrant activation of these pathways in CRC. Additionally, the paper examines how mutations in key molecular pathways, including Wnt, EGFR/MAPK, and PI3K, fuel CRC development, and how these alterations can serve as both diagnostic and prognostic markers. The dual function of autophagy in CRC, acting as a tumor suppressor or promoter depending on the context, is also scrutinized. Through a comprehensive analysis of cellular and molecular events, this research aims to deepen our understanding of CRC and pave the way for more effective diagnostics, prognostics, and therapeutic strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lei Yan
- Medical Department, The Central Hospital of Shaoyang Affiliated to University of South China, Shaoyang, China
| | - Jia Shi
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Central Hospital of Shaoyang Affiliated to University of South China, Shaoyang, China
| | - Jiazuo Zhu
- Department of Oncology, Xuancheng City Central Hospital, No. 117 Tong Road, Xuancheng, Anhui, China.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jiang M, Wu W, Xiong Z, Yu X, Ye Z, Wu Z. Targeting autophagy drug discovery: Targets, indications and development trends. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 267:116117. [PMID: 38295689 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.116117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Autophagy plays a vital role in sustaining cellular homeostasis and its alterations have been implicated in the etiology of many diseases. Drugs development targeting autophagy began decades ago and hundreds of agents were developed, some of which are licensed for the clinical usage. However, no existing intervention specifically aimed at modulating autophagy is available. The obstacles that prevent drug developments come from the complexity of the actual impact of autophagy regulators in disease scenarios. With the development and application of new technologies, several promising categories of compounds for autophagy-based therapy have emerged in recent years. In this paper, the autophagy-targeted drugs based on their targets at various hierarchical sites of the autophagic signaling network, e.g., the upstream and downstream of the autophagosome and the autophagic components with enzyme activities are reviewed and analyzed respectively, with special attention paid to those at preclinical or clinical trials. The drugs tailored to specific autophagy alone and combination with drugs/adjuvant therapies widely used in clinical for various diseases treatments are also emphasized. The emerging drug design and development targeting selective autophagy receptors (SARs) and their related proteins, which would be expected to arrest or reverse the progression of disease in various cancers, inflammation, neurodegeneration, and metabolic disorders, are critically reviewed. And the challenges and perspective in clinically developing autophagy-targeted drugs and possible combinations with other medicine are considered in the review.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mengjia Jiang
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, China Jiliang University, China
| | - Wayne Wu
- College of Osteopathic Medicine, New York Institute of Technology, USA
| | - Zijie Xiong
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, China Jiliang University, China
| | - Xiaoping Yu
- Department of Biology, China Jiliang University, China
| | - Zihong Ye
- Department of Biology, China Jiliang University, China
| | - Zhiping Wu
- Department of Pharmacology and Pharmacy, China Jiliang University, China.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Xu J, Elshazly AM, Gewirtz DA. The Cytoprotective, Cytotoxic and Nonprotective Functional Forms of Autophagy Induced by Microtubule Poisons in Tumor Cells—Implications for Autophagy Modulation as a Therapeutic Strategy. Biomedicines 2022; 10:biomedicines10071632. [PMID: 35884937 PMCID: PMC9312878 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines10071632] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2022] [Revised: 06/30/2022] [Accepted: 07/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Microtubule poisons, as is the case with other antitumor drugs, routinely promote autophagy in tumor cells. However, the nature and function of the autophagy, in terms of whether it is cytoprotective, cytotoxic or nonprotective, cannot be predicted; this likely depends on both the type of drug studied as well as the tumor cell under investigation. In this article, we explore the literature relating to the spectrum of microtubule poisons and the nature of the autophagy induced. We further speculate as to whether autophagy inhibition could be a practical strategy for improving the response to cancer therapy involving these drugs that have microtubule function as a primary target.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jingwen Xu
- School of Pharmacy, Guangdong Pharmaceutical University, Guangzhou 510006, China;
| | - Ahmed M. Elshazly
- Massey Cancer Center, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 401 College St., Richmond, VA 23298, USA;
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Kafrelsheikh University, Kafrelsheikh 33516, Egypt
| | - David A. Gewirtz
- Massey Cancer Center, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Virginia Commonwealth University, 401 College St., Richmond, VA 23298, USA;
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Hirata AS, La Clair JJ, Jimenez PC, Costa-Lotufo LV, Fenical W. Preclinical Development of Seriniquinones as Selective Dermcidin Modulators for the Treatment of Melanoma. Mar Drugs 2022; 20:md20050301. [PMID: 35621952 PMCID: PMC9143531 DOI: 10.3390/md20050301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2022] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 04/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
The bioactive natural product seriniquinone was discovered as a potential melanoma drug, which was produced by the as-yet-undescribed marine bacterium of the rare genus Serinicoccus. As part of a long-term research program aimed at the discovery of new agents for the treatment of cancer, seriniquinone revealed remarkable in vitro activity against a diversity of cancer cell lines in the US National Cancer Institute 60-cell line screening. Target deconvolution studies defined the seriniquinones as a new class of melanoma-selective agents that act in part by targeting dermcidin (DCD). The targeted DCD peptide has been recently examined and defined as a “pro-survival peptide” in cancer cells. While DCD was first isolated from human skin and thought to be only an antimicrobial peptide, currently DCD has been also identified as a peptide associated with the survival of cancer cells, through what is believed to be a disulfide-based conjugation with proteins that would normally induce apoptosis. However, the significantly enhanced potency of seriniquinone was of particular interest against the melanoma cell lines assessed in the NCI 60-cell line panel. This observed selectivity provided a driving force that resulted in a multidimensional program for the discovery of a usable drug with a new anticancer target and, therefore, a novel mode of action. Here, we provided an overview of the discovery and development efforts to date.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Amanda S. Hirata
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil;
| | - James J. La Clair
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093-0358, USA
- Correspondence: (J.J.L.C.); (L.V.C.-L.); (W.F.)
| | - Paula C. Jimenez
- Institute of Marine Science, Federal University of São Paulo, Santos 11070-100, Brazil;
| | - Leticia Veras Costa-Lotufo
- Department of Pharmacology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo 05508-900, Brazil;
- Correspondence: (J.J.L.C.); (L.V.C.-L.); (W.F.)
| | - William Fenical
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, CA 92093-0204, USA
- Correspondence: (J.J.L.C.); (L.V.C.-L.); (W.F.)
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
New insights on the role of autophagy in the pathogenesis and treatment of melanoma. Mol Biol Rep 2020; 47:9021-9032. [DOI: 10.1007/s11033-020-05886-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
|
6
|
Alotaibi MR, As Sobeai HM, Alaqil FA, Almutairi M, Alhazzani K, Sulaiman AA, Isab AA, Hadal Alotaibi N. A newly synthesized platinum-based compound (PBC-II) increases chemosensitivity of HeLa ovarian cancer cells via inhibition of autophagy. Saudi Pharm J 2019; 27:1203-1209. [PMID: 31885480 PMCID: PMC6921179 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsps.2019.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
There are many mechanisms of resistance, chemoresistance of HeLa cells to anti-cancer agents seems to be autophagy-mediated. While using very effective anti-cancers such as Doxorubicin and cisplatin, cells overcome the cytotoxicity of these drugs through promotion of what so-called cytoprotective autophagy. Here in this study, we sought to introduce a novel platinum-based compound PBC-II that possesses anti-cancer activity. Our data showed that PBC-II is able to induce apoptosis at relatively low concentrations, with no detectable reactive oxygen species (ROS). However, further experiments demonstrated that exposure of HeLa cells to PBC-II did not promote autophagy; rather, it resulted in accumulation of p62 and decrease in LC3-II levels. Autophagy was then promoted in HeLa cells pharmacologically by Doxorubicin and genetically by siRNA IL-10. In order to confirm promotion of autophagy in our model, we performed acridine orange staining to assess for autophagy under microscope as well as via flow cytometry. We then measured protein level of autophagy markers p62 and LC3 by western blot. Our data indicated that PBC-II interferes with therapy-induced autophagy. We also determined PI3K activity while co-incubation of PBC-II with autophagy inducers. It was clear that PI3K activation decreased when PBC-II was co-administered with autophagy inducers. Collectively, PBC-II exerts unique anti-proliferative effects associated with inhibition of autophagy, which indicates that PBC-II is potentially a promising agent to be used in resistant ovarian tumors.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Moureq Rashed Alotaibi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Homood Moqbel As Sobeai
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | | | - Mashal Almutairi
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Khalid Alhazzani
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh 11451, Saudi Arabia
| | - Adam A.A. Sulaiman
- Lab Technical Support Office (LTSO), King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Anvarhusein A. Isab
- Department of Chemistry, King Fahd University of Petroleum and Minerals, Dhahran 31261, Saudi Arabia
| | - Nasser Hadal Alotaibi
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Jouf University, Sakakah 72341, Saudi Arabia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Cell death-based treatments of melanoma:conventional treatments and new therapeutic strategies. Cell Death Dis 2018; 9:112. [PMID: 29371600 PMCID: PMC5833861 DOI: 10.1038/s41419-017-0059-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 07/17/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The incidence of malignant melanoma has continued to rise during the past decades. However, in the last few years, treatment protocols have significantly been improved thanks to a better understanding of the key oncogenes and signaling pathways involved in its pathogenesis and progression. Anticancer therapy would either kill tumor cells by triggering apoptosis or permanently arrest them in the G1 phase of the cell cycle. Unfortunately, melanoma is often refractory to commonly used anticancer drugs. More recently, however, some new anticancer strategies have been developed that are “external” to cancer cells, for example stimulating the immune system’s response or inhibiting angiogenesis. In fact, the increasing knowledge of melanoma pathogenetic mechanisms, in particular the discovery of genetic mutations activating specific oncogenes, stimulated the development of molecularly targeted therapies, a form of treatment in which a drug (chemical or biological) is developed with the goal of exclusively destroying cancer cells by interfering with specific molecules that drive growth and spreading of the tumor. Again, after the initial exciting results associated with targeted therapy, tumor resistance and/or relapse of the melanoma lesion have been observed. Hence, very recently, new therapeutic strategies based on the modulation of the immune system function have been developed. Since cancer cells are known to be capable of evading immune-mediated surveillance, i.e., to block the immune system cell activity, a series of molecular strategies, including monoclonal antibodies, have been developed in order to “release the brakes” on the immune system igniting immune reactivation and hindering metastatic melanoma cell growth. In this review we analyze the various biological strategies underlying conventional chemotherapy as well as the most recently developed targeted therapies and immunotherapies, pointing at the molecular mechanisms of cell injury and death engaged by the different classes of therapeutic agents.
Collapse
|
8
|
Gilmore SP, Gonye ALK, Li EC, Espinosa de Los Reyes S, Gupton JT, Quintero OA, Fischer-Stenger K. Effects of a novel microtubule-depolymerizer on pro-inflammatory signaling in RAW264.7 macrophages. Chem Biol Interact 2018; 280:109-116. [PMID: 29247640 PMCID: PMC5766364 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2017.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2017] [Revised: 12/04/2017] [Accepted: 12/12/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The Nuclear Factor-kappa B (NF-κB) pathway is vital for immune system regulation and pro-inflammatory signaling. Many inflammatory disorders and diseases, including cancer, are linked to dysregulation of NF-κB signaling. When macrophages recognize the presence of a pathogen, the signaling pathway is activated, resulting in the nuclear translocation of the transcription factor, NF-κB, to turn on pro-inflammatory genes. Here, we demonstrate the effects of a novel microtubule depolymerizer, NT-07-16, a polysubstituted pyrrole compound, on this process. Treatment with NT-07-16 decreased the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW264.7 mouse macrophages. It appears that the reduction in pro-inflammatory mediators produced by the macrophages after exposure to NT-07-16 may be due to activities upstream of the translocation of NF-κB into the nucleus. NF-κB translocation occurs after its inhibitory protein, IκB-α is phosphorylated which signals for its degradation releasing NF-κB so it is free to move into the nucleus. Previous studies from other laboratories indicate that these processes are associated with the microtubule network. Our results show that exposure to the microtubule-depolymerizer, NT-07-16 reduces the phosphorylation of IκB-α and also decreases the association of NF-κB with tubulin which may affect the ability of NF-κB to translocate into the nucleus. Therefore, the anti-inflammatory activity of NT-07-16 may be explained, at least in part, by alterations in these steps in the NF-κB signaling pathway leading to less NF-κB entering the nucleus and reducing the production of pro-inflammatory mediators by the activated macrophages.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna L K Gonye
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
| | - Elizabeth C Li
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
| | | | - John T Gupton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
| | - Omar A Quintero
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, VA 23173, USA.
| | | |
Collapse
|
9
|
Orfanidis K, Wäster P, Lundmark K, Rosdahl I, Öllinger K. Evaluation of tubulin β-3 as a novel senescence-associated gene in melanocytic malignant transformation. Pigment Cell Melanoma Res 2017; 30:243-254. [PMID: 28024114 DOI: 10.1111/pcmr.12572] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Malignant melanoma might develop from melanocytic nevi in which the growth-arrested state has been broken. We analyzed the gene expression of young and senescent human melanocytes in culture and compared the gene expression data with a dataset from nevi and melanomas. A concordant altered gene expression was identified in 84 genes when comparing the growth-arrested samples with proliferating samples. TUBB3, which encodes the microtubule protein tubulin β-3, showed a decreased expression in senescent melanocytes and nevi and was selected for further studies. Depletion of tubulin β-3 caused accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase and decreased proliferation and migration. Immunohistochemical assessment of tubulin β-3 in benign lesions revealed strong staining in the superficial part of the intradermal components, which faded with depth. In contrast, primary melanomas exhibited staining without gradient in a disordered pattern and strong staining of the invasive front. Our results describe an approach to find clinically useful diagnostic biomarkers to more precisely identify cutaneous malignant melanoma and present tubulin β-3 as a candidate marker.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kyriakos Orfanidis
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.,Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Petra Wäster
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Katarzyna Lundmark
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.,Department of Clinical Pathology and Clinical Genetics, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Inger Rosdahl
- Department of Dermatology and Venereology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden.,Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Karin Öllinger
- Experimental Pathology, Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Guamán-Ortiz LM, Orellana MIR, Ratovitski EA. Natural Compounds As Modulators of Non-apoptotic Cell Death in Cancer Cells. Curr Genomics 2017; 18:132-155. [PMID: 28367073 PMCID: PMC5345338 DOI: 10.2174/1389202917666160803150639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2015] [Revised: 11/24/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Cell death is an innate capability of cells to be removed from microenvironment, if and when they are damaged by multiple stresses. Cell death is often regulated by multiple molecular pathways and mechanism, including apoptosis, autophagy, and necroptosis. The molecular network underlying these processes is often intertwined and one pathway can dynamically shift to another one acquiring certain protein components, in particular upon treatment with various drugs. The strategy to treat human cancer ultimately relies on the ability of anticancer therapeutics to induce tumor-specific cell death, while leaving normal adjacent cells undamaged. However, tumor cells often develop the resistance to the drug-induced cell death, thus representing a great challenge for the anticancer approaches. Numerous compounds originated from the natural sources and biopharmaceutical industries are applied today in clinics showing advantageous results. However, some exhibit serious toxic side effects. Thus, novel effective therapeutic approaches in treating cancers are continued to be developed. Natural compounds with anticancer activity have gained a great interest among researchers and clinicians alike since they have shown more favorable safety and efficacy then the synthetic marketed drugs. Numerous studies in vitro and in vivo have found that several natural compounds display promising anticancer potentials. This review underlines certain information regarding the role of natural compounds from plants, microorganisms and sea life forms, which are able to induce non-apoptotic cell death in tumor cells, namely autophagy and necroptosis.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis Miguel Guamán-Ortiz
- 1 Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador ; 2 Head and Neck Cancer Research Division, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Maria Isabel Ramirez Orellana
- 1 Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador ; 2 Head and Neck Cancer Research Division, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Edward A Ratovitski
- 1 Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Técnica Particular de Loja, Loja, Ecuador ; 2 Head and Neck Cancer Research Division, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Ciemniecki JA, Lewis CP, Gupton JT, Fischer-Stenger K. Effects of a pyrrole-based, microtubule-depolymerizing compound on RAW 264.7 macrophages. Chem Biol Interact 2016; 246:63-8. [PMID: 26790578 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2016.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2015] [Revised: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RAW 264.7 murine macrophages were exposed to the pyrrole-based compound 3,5-Dibromo-4-(3,4-dimethoxyphenyl)-1H-pyrrole-2-carboxylic acid ethyl ester (JG-03-14), which is a known microtubule depolymerizing agent with antitumor activity [1,2,3]. In this study exposure to JG-03-14 reduced the production of pro-inflammatory molecules by macrophages activated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Treatment with the pyrrole-based compound decreased the concentration of tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and nitric oxide (NO) released from the macrophages. Exposure to JG-03-14 also decreased TNF-α mRNA expression levels and the protein expression levels of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS), the enzyme responsible for NO production in the activated macrophages. Furthermore, JG-03-14 treatment significantly changed the degradation profile of IκB-β, an inhibitor of the NF-κB transcription factor, which suggests that JG-03-14 may attenuate the activation of the LPS-induced NF-κB signaling pathway needed to produce the pro-inflammatory mediators. We conclude that JG-03-14 possesses anti-inflammatory properties.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John A Ciemniecki
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, United States.
| | - Clarke P Lewis
- Department of Biology, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, United States.
| | - John T Gupton
- Department of Chemistry, University of Richmond, Richmond, VA 23173, United States.
| | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Hassan M, Selimovic D, Hannig M, Haikel Y, Brodell RT, Megahed M. Endoplasmic reticulum stress-mediated pathways to both apoptosis and autophagy: Significance for melanoma treatment. World J Exp Med 2015; 5:206-217. [PMID: 26618107 PMCID: PMC4655250 DOI: 10.5493/wjem.v5.i4.206] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2015] [Revised: 06/29/2015] [Accepted: 09/08/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Melanoma is the most aggressive form of skin cancer. Disrupted intracellular signaling pathways are responsible for melanoma's extraordinary resistance to current chemotherapeutic modalities. The pathophysiologic basis for resistance to both chemo- and radiation therapy is rooted in altered genetic and epigenetic mechanisms that, in turn, result in the impairing of cell death machinery and/or excessive activation of cell growth and survival-dependent pathways. Although most current melanoma therapies target mitochondrial dysregulation, there is increasing evidence that endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress-associated pathways play a role in the potentiation, initiation and maintenance of cell death machinery and autophagy. This review focuses on the reliability of ER-associated pathways as therapeutic targets for melanoma treatment.
Collapse
|
13
|
|
14
|
Fang KM, Liu JJ, Li CC, Cheng CC, Hsieh YT, Chai KM, Lien YA, Tzeng SF. Colchicine derivative as a potential anti-glioma compound. J Neurooncol 2015; 124:403-12. [DOI: 10.1007/s11060-015-1874-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2015] [Accepted: 07/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
|
15
|
Chiu CT, Hsuan SW, Lin HH, Hsu CC, Chou FP, Chen JH. Hibiscus sabdariffa leaf polyphenolic extract induces human melanoma cell death, apoptosis, and autophagy. J Food Sci 2015; 80:H649-58. [PMID: 25694272 DOI: 10.1111/1750-3841.12790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Melanoma is the least common but most fatal form of skin cancer. Previous studies have indicated that an aqueous extract of Hibiscus sabdariffa leaves possess hypoglycemic, hypolipidemic, and antioxidant effects. In this study, we want to investigate the anticancer activity of Hibiscus leaf polyphenolic (HLP) extract in melanoma cells. First, HLP was exhibited to be rich in epicatechin gallate (ECG) and other polyphenols. Apoptotic and autophagic activities of HLP and ECG were further evaluated by DAPI stain, cell-cycle analysis, and acidic vascular organelle (AVO) stain. Our results revealed that both HLP and ECG induced the caspases cleavages, Bcl-2 family proteins regulation, and Fas/FasL activation in A375 cells. In addition, we also revealed that the cells presented AVO-positive after HLP treatments. HLP could increase the expressions of autophagy-related proteins autophagy-related gene 5 (ATG5), Beclin1, and light chain 3-II (LC3-II), and induce autophagic cell death in A375 cells. These data indicated that the anticancer effect of HLP, partly contributed by ECG, in A375 cells. HLP potentially could be developed as an antimelanoma agent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Tang Chiu
- Inst. of Biochemistry and Biotechnology, Chung Shan Medical Univ, No. 110, Sec. 1, Chien Kuo N. Rd., Taichung, 402, Taiwan
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
16
|
Dalmasso G, Cougnoux A, Delmas J, Darfeuille-Michaud A, Bonnet R. The bacterial genotoxin colibactin promotes colon tumor growth by modifying the tumor microenvironment. Gut Microbes 2014; 5:675-80. [PMID: 25483338 PMCID: PMC4615906 DOI: 10.4161/19490976.2014.969989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The gut microbiota is suspected to promote colorectal cancer (CRC). Escherichia coli are more frequently found in CCR biopsies than in healthy mucosa; furthermore, the majority of mucosa-associated E. coli isolated from CCR harbors the pks genomic island (pks+ E. coli) that is responsible for the synthesis of colibactin, a genotoxic compound. We have recently reported that transient contact of a few malignant cells with colibactin-producing E. coli increases tumor growth in a xenograft mouse model. Growth is sustained by cellular senescence that is accompanied by the production of growth factors. We demonstrated that cellular senescence is a consequence of the pks+ E. coli-induced alteration of p53 SUMOylation, an essential post-translational modification in eukaryotic cells. The underlying mechanisms for this process involve the induction of miR-20a-5p expression, which targets SENP1, a key protein in the regulation of the SUMOylation process. These results are consistent with the expression of SENP1, miR-20a-5p and growth factors that are observed in a CRC mouse model and in human CCR biopsies colonized by pks+ E. coli. Overall, the data reveal a new paradigm for carcinogenesis in which pks+ E. coli infection induces cellular senescence characterized by the production of growth factors that promote the proliferation of uninfected cells and, subsequently, tumor growth.
Collapse
Key Words
- AOM, azoxymethane
- CM, conditioned medium
- CRC, colorectal cancer
- DSS, dextran sodium sulfate
- Escherichia coli, microbiota
- MOI, multiplicity of infection
- SA-β-gal, senescence-associated β-galactosidase
- SASP, senescence-associated secretory phenotype
- SENP1
- SUMO
- colibactin
- colorectal cancer
- miR, microRNA
- pks+ E. coli, colibactin-producing E. coli
- pks- E. coli, isogenic mutant of pks+ E. coli deficient for colibactin production
- toxin, microRNA
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guillaume Dalmasso
- Clermont Université; Université d'Auvergne; Inserm U1071; INRA USC2018, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Antony Cougnoux
- Clermont Université; Université d'Auvergne; Inserm U1071; INRA USC2018, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Julien Delmas
- Clermont Université; Université d'Auvergne; Inserm U1071; INRA USC2018, Clermont-Ferrand, France,Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Arlette Darfeuille-Michaud
- Clermont Université; Université d'Auvergne; Inserm U1071; INRA USC2018, Clermont-Ferrand, France,Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Clermont-Ferrand, France,This article is dedicated to the memory of Arlette Darfeuille-Michaud. This work would never been achieved without her enthusiasm and energy.
| | - Richard Bonnet
- Clermont Université; Université d'Auvergne; Inserm U1071; INRA USC2018, Clermont-Ferrand, France,Centre Hospitalier Universitaire, Clermont-Ferrand, France,Correspondence to: Richard Bonnet;
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Scott R, Karki M, Reisenauer MR, Rodrigues R, Dasari R, Smith WR, Pelly SC, van Otterlo WAL, Shuster CB, Rogelj S, Magedov IV, Frolova LV, Kornienko A. Synthetic and biological studies of tubulin targeting c2-substituted 7-deazahypoxanthines derived from marine alkaloid rigidins. ChemMedChem 2014; 9:1428-1435. [PMID: 24644272 PMCID: PMC4945961 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201300532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
C2-aryl- and C2-alkyl-7-deazahypoxanthines as analogues of marine alkaloid rigidins were prepared utilizing novel synthetic methods developed for the construction of the pyrrolo[2,3-d]pyrimidine ring system. The new compounds exhibited sub-micromolar to nanomolar antiproliferative potencies against a panel of cell lines including in vitro models for drug-resistant tumors, such as glioblastoma, melanoma and non-small-cell lung cancer. A selected representative C2-methyl-7-deazahypoxanthine was found to inhibit microtubule dynamics in cancer cells, lending evidence for tubulin targeting as a mode of action for these compounds in cancer cells. The results of the docking studies utilizing the colchicine site on β-tubulin were consistent with the observed structure-activity relationship data, including an important finding that derivatization at C2 with linear alkyl groups leads to the retention of activity, thus permitting the attachment of a biotin-containing linker for the subsequent proteomics assays. Because many microtubule-targeting compounds are successfully used to fight cancer in the clinic, the reported antitubulin rigidin analogues have significant potential as new anticancer agents.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Scott
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
| | - Menuka Karki
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA
| | - Mary R. Reisenauer
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM 87801, USA
| | - Roberta Rodrigues
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
| | - Ramesh Dasari
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
| | - W. Ross Smith
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
| | - Stephen C. Pelly
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Willem A. L. van Otterlo
- Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Charles B. Shuster
- Department of Biology, New Mexico State University, Las Cruces, NM 88003, USA
| | - Snezna Rogelj
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM 87801, USA
| | - Igor V. Magedov
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM 87801, USA
| | - Liliya V. Frolova
- Departments of Chemistry and Biology, New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology, Socorro, NM 87801, USA
| | - Alexander Kornienko
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas State University, San Marcos, TX, 78666, USA
| |
Collapse
|
18
|
Koehler BC, Jäger D, Schulze-Bergkamen H. Targeting cell death signaling in colorectal cancer: Current strategies and future perspectives. World J Gastroenterol 2014; 20:1923-1934. [PMID: 24587670 PMCID: PMC3934462 DOI: 10.3748/wjg.v20.i8.1923] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2013] [Revised: 12/06/2013] [Accepted: 01/15/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The evasion from controlled cell death induction has been considered as one of the hallmarks of cancer cells. Defects in cell death signaling are a fundamental phenomenon in colorectal cancer. Nearly any non-invasive cancer treatment finally aims to induce cell death. However, apoptosis resistance is the major cause for insufficient therapeutic success and disease relapse in gastrointestinal oncology. Various compounds have been developed and evaluated with the aim to meet with this obstacle by triggering cell death in cancer cells. The aim of this review is to illustrate current approaches and future directions in targeting cell death signaling in colorectal cancer. The complex signaling network of apoptosis will be demonstrated and the “druggability” of targets will be identified. In detail, proteins regulating mitochondrial cell death in colorectal cancer, such as Bcl-2 and survivin, will be discussed with respect to potential therapeutic exploitation. Death receptor signaling and targeting in colorectal cancer will be outlined. Encouraging clinical trials including cell death based targeted therapies for colorectal cancer are under way and will be demonstrated. Our conceptual understanding of cell death in cancer is rapidly emerging and new types of controlled cellular death have been identified. To meet this progress in cell death research, the implication of autophagy and necroptosis for colorectal carcinogenesis and therapeutic approaches will also be depicted. The main focus of this topic highlight will be on the revelation of the complex cell death concepts in colorectal cancer and the bridging from basic research to clinical use.
Collapse
|
19
|
Emery SM, Alotaibi MR, Tao Q, Selley DE, Lichtman AH, Gewirtz DA. Combined antiproliferative effects of the aminoalkylindole WIN55,212-2 and radiation in breast cancer cells. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2013; 348:293-302. [PMID: 24259678 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.113.205120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The potential antitumor activity of cannabinoid receptor agonists, such as the aminoalklylindole WIN55,212-2 (WIN2), has been studied extensively, but their potential interaction with conventional cancer therapies, such as radiation, remains unknown. In the present work, the influence of WIN2 on the antiproliferative activity of radiation in human (MCF-7 and MDA-MB231) and murine (4T1) breast cancer cells was investigated. The antiproliferative effects produced by combination of WIN2 and radiation were more effective than either agent alone. The stereoisomer of WIN2, WIN55,212-3 (WIN3), failed to inhibit growth or potentiate the growth-inhibitory effects of radiation, indicative of stereospecificity. Two other aminoalkylindoles, pravadoline and JWH-015 [(2-methyl-1-propyl-1H-indol-3-yl)-1-naphthalenyl-methanone], also enhanced the antiproliferative effects of radiation, but other synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., nabilone, CP55,940 [(+)-rel-5-(1,1-dimethylheptyl)-2-[(1R,2R,5R)-5-hydroxy-2-(3-hydroxypropyl)cyclohexyl]-phenol], and methanandamide) or phytocannabinoids [i.e., Δ⁹-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) and cannabidiol] did not. The combination treatment of WIN2 + radiation promoted both autophagy and senescence but not apoptosis or necrosis. WIN2 also failed to alter radiation-induced DNA damage or the apparent rate of DNA repair. Although the antiproliferative actions of WIN2 were mediated through noncannabinoid receptor-mediated pathways, the observation that WIN2 interfered with growth stimulation by sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P) implicates the potential involvement of S1P/ceramide signaling pathways. In addition to demonstrating that aminoalkylindole compounds could potentially augment the effectiveness of radiation treatment in breast cancer, the present study suggests that THC and nabilone are unlikely to interfere with the effectiveness of radiation therapy, which is of particular relevance to patients using cannabinoid-based drugs to ameliorate the toxicity of cancer therapies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sean M Emery
- Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology (S.M.E., M.R.A., Q.T., D.E.S., A.H.T., D.A.G.), Massey Cancer Center (D.A.G.), Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Alotaibi MR, Asnake B, Di X, Beckman MJ, Durrant D, Simoni D, Baruchello R, Lee RM, Schwartz EL, Gewirtz DA. Stilbene 5c, a microtubule poison with vascular disrupting properties that induces multiple modes of growth arrest and cell death. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:1688-98. [PMID: 24144631 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2013] [Revised: 10/07/2013] [Accepted: 10/08/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The stilbene derivative, cis-3,4',5-trimethoxy-3'-aminostilbene (stilbene 5c), is a potentially potent antitumor agent that acts via binding to the colchicine-binding site in tubulin. The current studies were designed to investigate the effectiveness of stilbene 5c against the HCT-116 human colon cancer cell line and B16/F10 melanoma cells as well as human endothelial cell tube formation and tumor perfusion. Stilbene 5c produced a time-dependent decrease in cell viability in both cell lines and the capacity of the cells to proliferate was not restored upon removal of the drug. Treatment with stilbene 5c also promoted both senescence and autophagy in both cell lines. TUNEL and annexin 5 staining indicated that apoptosis also occurs in stilbene 5c-treated HCT-116 cells, but not in B16/F10 melanoma cells. DAPI staining revealed morphological changes in the cell nuclei (binucleated and micronucleated cells) indicative of mitotic catastrophe in HCT-116 cells but not in the B16/F10 melanoma cells. p53-null HCT-116 cells demonstrated a similar growth arrest/cell death response to stilbene as p53-wild type HCT-116 cells. Stilbene 5c also completely inhibited human endothelial cell tube formation on Matrigel, consistent with potential anti-angiogenic actions. Using a new method developed for monitoring the pharmacodynamic effects of stilbene 5c in vivo, we found that a single injection of stilbene 5c reduced tumor perfusion by 65% at 4h, returning to baseline by 24h, while subsequent daily injections of stilbene 5c produced progressively larger reductions and smaller rebounds. This work indicates that stilbene 5c could potentially be effective against melanoma and colon cancer through the promotion of multiple modes of growth arrest and cell death coupled with anti-angiogenic and antivascular actions.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M R Alotaibi
- Departments of Pharmacology and Toxicology and Medicine and Massey Cancer Center, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23298, USA
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Da C, Mooberry SL, Gupton JT, Kellogg GE. How to deal with low-resolution target structures: using SAR, ensemble docking, hydropathic analysis, and 3D-QSAR to definitively map the αβ-tubulin colchicine site. J Med Chem 2013; 56:7382-95. [PMID: 23961916 DOI: 10.1021/jm400954h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
αβ-Tubulin colchicine site inhibitors (CSIs) from four scaffolds that we previously tested for antiproliferative activity were modeled to better understand their effect on microtubules. Docking models, constructed by exploiting the SAR of a pyrrole subset and HINT scoring, guided ensemble docking of all 59 compounds. This conformation set and two variants having progressively less structure knowledge were subjected to CoMFA, CoMFA+HINT, and CoMSIA 3D-QSAR analyses. The CoMFA+HINT model (docked alignment) showed the best statistics: leave-one-out q(2) of 0.616, r(2) of 0.949, and r(2)pred (internal test set) of 0.755. An external (tested in other laboratories) collection of 24 CSIs from eight scaffolds were evaluated with the 3D-QSAR models, which correctly ranked their activity trends in 7/8 scaffolds for CoMFA+HINT (8/8 for CoMFA). The combination of SAR, ensemble docking, hydropathic analysis, and 3D-QSAR provides an atomic-scale colchicine site model more consistent with a target structure resolution much higher than the ~3.6 Å available for αβ-tubulin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chenxiao Da
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry & Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University , Richmond, Virginia 23298-0540, United States
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Mowla SN, Perkins ND, Jat PS. Friend or foe: emerging role of nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells in cell senescence. Onco Targets Ther 2013; 6:1221-9. [PMID: 24043947 PMCID: PMC3772761 DOI: 10.2147/ott.s36160] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB) proteins are a family of ubiquitously expressed transcription factors that regulate the response to cellular stress. They mediate innate and adaptive immunity through the initiation of an inflammatory response to pro-inflammatory signals. The role of persistent inflammation in aiding tumor development has led to the NF-κB family of transcription factors being strongly implicated in promoting cancer. However, recent studies have now revealed that NF-κB can also function as a tumor suppressor through the induction of cellular senescence. Cellular senescence is a stable cell cycle arrest that normal cells undergo in response to a variety of intrinsic and extrinsic stimuli including: progressive telomere shortening, changes in telomeric structure, or other forms of genotoxic stress. Senescence can compromise tissue repair and regeneration, contributing to tissue and organismal aging via the accumulation of senescent cells, depletion of stem/progenitor cells and secretion of an array of inflammatory cytokines, chemokines, and matrix metalloproteinases. Senescence can also lead to the removal of potentially cancerous cells, thereby acting as a potent tumor suppressor mechanism. Herein, we review the evidence indicating a role for NF-κB in tumor suppression via cellular senescence and suggest that depending upon the subunit expressed, the biological context, and the type and intensity of the signal, NF-κB can indeed promote senescence growth arrest.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sophia N Mowla
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and MRC Prion Unit, UCL institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| | - Neil D Perkins
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, UK
| | - Parmjit S Jat
- Department of Neurodegenerative Disease and MRC Prion Unit, UCL institute of Neurology, Queen Square, London, UK
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Targeting autophagy as a potential therapeutic approach for melanoma therapy. Semin Cancer Biol 2013; 23:352-60. [PMID: 23831275 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2013.06.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2013] [Revised: 06/11/2013] [Accepted: 06/18/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Melanoma, occurring as a rapidly progressive skin cancer, is resistant to current chemo- and radiotherapy, especially after metastases to distant organs has taken place. Most chemotherapeutic drugs exert their cytotoxic effect by inducing apoptosis, which, however, is often deficient in cancer cells. Thus, it is appropriate to attempt the targeting of alternative pathways, which regulate cellular viability. Recent studies of autophagy, a well-conserved cellular catabolic process, promise to improve the therapeutic outcome in melanoma patients. Although a dual role for autophagy in cancer therapy has been reported, both protecting against and promoting cell death, the potential for using autophagy in cancer therapy seems to be promising. Here, we review the recent literature on the role of autophagy in melanoma with respect to the expression of autophagic markers, the involvement of autophagy in chemo- and immunotherapy, as well as the role of autophagy in hypoxia and altered metabolic pathways employed for melanoma therapy.
Collapse
|