Autophagy-related gene ATG7 participates in the asexual development, stress response and virulence of filamentous insect pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana

How Metarhizium robertsii's mycelial consciousness gets its conidia Zen-ready for stress

This memoir takes a whimsical ride through my professional adventures, spotlighting my fungal stress research on the insect-pathogenic fungus Metarhizium robertsii, which transformed many of my wildest dreams into reality. Imagine the magic of fungi meeting science and me, a happy researcher, arriving at Utah State University ready to dive deep into studies with the legendary insect pathologist, my advisor Donald W. Roberts, and my co-advisor Anne J. Anderson. From my very first "Aha!" moment in the lab, I plunged into a vortex of discovery, turning out research like a mycelium on a mission. Who knew 18 h/day, seven days a week, could be so exhilarating? I was fueled by an insatiable curiosity, boundless creativity, and a perhaps slightly alarming level of motivation. Years later, I managed to bring my grandest vision to life: the International Symposium on Fungal Stress-ISFUS. This groundbreaking event has attracted 162 esteemed speakers from 29 countries to Brazil, proving that fungi can be both fun and globally fascinating. ISFUS is celebrating its fifth edition in 2024, a decade after its 2014 debut.

The nonautophagic functions of autophagy-related proteins

ABBREVIATIONS

ATG: autophagy related; BECN1: beclin 1; cAMP: cyclic adenosine monophosphate; dsDNA: double-stranded DNA; EMT: epithelial-mesenchymal transition; IFN: interferon; ISCs: intestinal stem cells; MAP1LC3/LC3: microtubule associated protein 1 light chain 3; MAPK/JNK: mitogen-activated protein kinase/c-Jun N-terminal kinases; MTOR: mechanistic target of rapamycin kinase; STING1: stimulator of interferon response cGAMP interactor 1; UVRAG: UV radiation resistance associated; VPS: vacuolar protein sorting.

Characterization of Fusarium verticillioides Med1 LxxLL Motif Involved in Fumonisin Biosynthesis

The Med1 transcriptional coactivator is a crucial component of the Mediator middle complex, which regulates the expression of specific genes involved in cell development, differentiation, reproduction, and homeostasis. The Med1 LxxLL motif, a five-amino-acid peptide sequence, is essential for Med1-mediated gene expression. Our previous study revealed that the disruption of the Med1 subunit leads to a significant increase in fumonisin B1 (FB1) production in the maize pathogen Fusarium verticillioides. However, our understanding of how Med1 regulates FB1 biosynthesis in F. verticillioides, particularly through the Med1 LxxLL motifs, remains limited. To characterize the role of LxxLL motifs, we generated a series of Med1 LxxLL deletion and amino acid substitution mutants. These mutants exhibited impaired mycelial growth and conidia germination while demonstrating enhanced conidia production and virulence. Similar to the Med1 deletion mutant, Med1 LxxLL motif mutants also exhibited increased FB1 biosynthesis in F. verticillioides. Proteomic profiling revealed that the Med1 LxxLL motif regulated the biosynthesis of several key substances that affected FB1 production, including starch and carotenoid. Subsequent studies demonstrated that the production of amylopectin, which is strongly linked to FB1 biosynthesis, was significantly increased in Med1 LxxLL motif mutants. In addition, the disruption of carotenoid metabolic genes decreased carotenoid content, thus stimulating FB1 biosynthesis in F. verticillioides. Taken together, our results provide valuable insights into how the Med1 LxxLL motif regulates FB1 biosynthesis in the mycotoxigenic fungus F. verticillioides.

Integration of Physiological, Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Reveals Molecular Mechanism of Paraisaria dubia Response to Zn2+ Stress

Utilizing mycoremediation is an important direction for managing heavy metal pollution. Zn²⁺ pollution has gradually become apparent, but there are few reports about its pollution remediation. Here, the Zn²⁺ remediation potential of Paraisaria dubia, an anamorph of the entomopathogenic fungus Ophiocordyceps gracilis, was explored. There was 60% Zn²⁺ removed by Paraisaria dubia mycelia from a Zn²⁺-contaminated medium. To reveal the Zn²⁺ tolerance mechanism of Paraisaria dubia, transcriptomic and metabolomic were executed. Results showed that Zn²⁺ caused a series of stress responses, such as energy metabolism inhibition, oxidative stress, antioxidant defense system disruption, autophagy obstruction, and DNA damage. Moreover, metabolomic analyses showed that the biosynthesis of some metabolites was affected against Zn²⁺ stress. In order to improve the tolerance to Zn²⁺ stress, the metabolic mechanism of metal ion transport, extracellular polysaccharides (EPS) synthesis, and microcycle conidiation were activated in P. dubia. Remarkably, the formation of microcycle conidiation may be triggered by reactive oxygen species (ROS) and mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathways. This study supplemented the gap of the Zn²⁺ resistance mechanism of Paraisaria dubia and provided a reference for the application of Paraisaria dubia in the bioremediation of heavy metals pollution.

Autophagy-Related Gene 4 Participates in the Asexual Development, Stress Response and Virulence of Filamentous Insect Pathogenic Fungus Beauveria bassiana

Autophagy is a conserved mechanism for the turnover of intracellular components. Among the 'core' autophagy-related genes (ATGs), the cysteine protease Atg4 plays an important role in the activation of Atg8 by exposing the glycine residue at its extreme carboxyl terminus. In the insect fungal pathogen Beauveria bassiana, a yeast ortholog of Atg4 was identified and functionally analyzed. Ablation of the BbATG4 gene blocks the autophagic process during fungal growth under aerial and submerged conditions. Gene loss did not affect fungal radial growth on various nutrients, but ΔBbatg4 exhibited an impaired ability to accumulate biomass. The mutant displayed increased sensitivity to stress caused by menadione and hydrogen peroxide. ΔBbatg4 generated abnormal conidiophores with reduced production of conidia. Additionally, fungal dimorphism was significantly attenuated in gene disruption mutants. Disruption of BbATG4 resulted in significantly weakened virulence in topical and intrahemocoel injection assays. Our study indicates that BbAtg4 contributes to the lifecycle of B. bassiana via its autophagic roles.

Virulence of Metarhizium rileyi Is Determined by Its Growth and Antioxidant Stress and the Protective and Detoxifying Enzymes of Spodoptera frugiperda

Spodoptera frugiperda is one of the most destructive crop pests in the world. Metarhizium rileyi is an entomopathogenic fungus specific for noctuid pests and is a very promising prospect in biological control against S. frugiperda. Two M. rileyi strains (XSBN200920 and HNQLZ200714) isolated from infected S. frugiperda were used to evaluate the virulence and biocontrol potential to different stages and instars of S. frugiperda. The results showed that XSBN200920 was significantly more virulent than HNQLZ200714 to eggs, larvae, pupae, and adults of S. frugiperda. In the larvae infected with the two M. rileyi strains, the activity of three protective enzymes (including peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT)) and two detoxifying enzymes (including glutathione-S transferase (GST) and carboxylesterase (CarE)) increased firstly and then decreased. The expression levels of protective enzymes and detoxification enzymes in larvae treated with XSBN200920 were greater than with HNQLZ200714. Furthermore, antioxidant stress-related gene (MrSOD and MrCAT family genes) expression in the two strains was measured by RT-qPCR (real-time quantitative PCR). The expression of these genes was significantly higher in the XSBN200920 strain compared to HNQLZ200714. There were also significant differences in the sensitivity of the two strains to the growth of different carbon and nitrogen sources and oxidative stress agents. In addition, the activity expression of antioxidant enzymes on the third day of culturing in XSBN200920 was significantly higher than with HNQLZ200714. In summary, the high virulence of M. rileyi XSBN200920 was not only determined by the expression levels of protective and detoxifying enzymes of the host but also regulated by the growth of entomogenic fungi and the resistance to the oxidative stress against S. frugiperda at different stages and instars. This study provides a theoretical fundament for the systematic control of Spodoptera frugiperda using Metarhizium rileyi.

Divergent Physiological Functions of Four Atg22-like Proteins in Conidial Germination, Development, and Virulence of the Entomopathogenic Fungus Beauveria bassiana

In yeast, Atg22 functions as a vacuolar efflux transporter to release the nutrients from the vacuole to the cytosol after the degradation of autophagic bodies. There are more than one Atg22 domain-containing proteins in filamentous fungi, but their physiological roles are largely unknown. In this study, four Atg22-like proteins (BbAtg22A through D) were functionally characterized in the filamentous entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana. These Atg22-like proteins exhibit different sub-cellular distributions. BbAtg22A localizes in lipid droplets. BbAtg22B and BbAtg22C are completely distributed in the vacuole, and BbAtg22D has an additional association with the cytomembrane. The ablation of Atg22-like proteins did not block autophagy. Four Atg22-like proteins systematically contribute to the fungal response to starvation and virulence in B. bassiana. With the exception of ∆Bbatg22C, the other three proteins contribute to dimorphic transmission. Additionally, BbAtg22A and BbAtg22D are required for cytomembrane integrity. Meanwhile, four Atg22-like proteins contribute to conidiation. Therefore, Atg22-like proteins link distinct sub-cellular structures for the development and virulence in B. bassiana. Our findings provide a novel insight into the non-autophagic roles of autophagy-related genes in filamentous fungi.

Palmitoyl Transferase FonPAT2-Catalyzed Palmitoylation of the FonAP-2 Complex Is Essential for Growth, Development, Stress Response, and Virulence in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum

Protein palmitoylation, one of posttranslational modifications, is catalyzed by a group of palmitoyl transferases (PATs) and plays critical roles in the regulation of protein functions. However, little is known about the function and mechanism of PATs in plant pathogenic fungi. The present study reports the function and molecular mechanism of FonPATs in Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum (Fon), the causal agent of watermelon Fusarium wilt. The Fon genome contains six FonPAT genes with distinct functions in vegetative growth, conidiation and conidial morphology, and stress response. FonPAT1, FonPAT2, and FonPAT4 have PAT activity and are required for Fon virulence on watermelon mainly through regulating in planta fungal growth within host plants. Comparative proteomics analysis identified a set of proteins that were palmitoylated by FonPAT2, and some of them are previously reported pathogenicity-related proteins in fungi. The FonAP-2 complex core subunits FonAP-2α, FonAP-2β, and FonAP-2μ were palmitoylated by FonPAT2 in vivo. FonPAT2-catalyzed palmitoylation contributed to the stability and interaction ability of the core subunits to ensure the formation of the FonAP-2 complex, which is essential for vegetative growth, asexual reproduction, cell wall integrity, and virulence in Fon. These findings demonstrate that FonPAT1, FonPAT2, and FonPAT4 play important roles in Fon virulence and that FonPAT2-catalyzed palmitoylation of the FonAP-2 complex is critical to Fon virulence, providing novel insights into the importance of protein palmitoylation in the virulence of plant fungal pathogens. IMPORTANCE Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. niveum (Fon), the causal agent of watermelon Fusarium wilt, is one of the most serious threats for the sustainable development of the watermelon industry worldwide. However, little is known about the underlying molecular mechanism of pathogenicity in Fon. Here, we found that the palmitoyl transferase (FonPAT) genes play distinct and diverse roles in basic biological processes and stress response and demonstrated that FonPAT1, FonPAT2, and FonPAT4 have PAT activity and are required for virulence in Fon. We also found that FonPAT2 palmitoylates the core subunits of the FonAP-2 complex to maintain the stability and the formation of the FonAP-2 complex, which is essential for basic biological processes, stress response, and virulence in Fon. Our study provides new insights into the understanding of the molecular mechanism involved in Fon virulence and will be helpful in the development of novel strategies for disease management.

Three Chitin Deacetylase Family Members of Beauveria bassiana Modulate Asexual Reproduction and Virulence of Fungi by Mediating Chitin Metabolism and Affect Fungal Parasitism and Saprophytic Life

As an important chitin-modifying enzyme, chitin deacetylase (CDA) has been characterized in many fungi, but its function in the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana remains unclear. Three CDAs with conserved domains of the carbohydrate esterase 4 (CE-4) family were identified in B. bassiana. Disruption of CDA1 resulted in growth restriction of the fungus on medium with chitin as a carbon source or without a carbon source. Deletion of CDA1 and CDA2 led to defects in fungal conidial formation and conidial vitality compared with those of the wild type (WT), and the conidial yield decreased by 25.81% to 47.68%. Inactivation of three CDA genes resulted in a decrease of 20.23% to 27% in the blastospore yield. ΔCDA1 and ΔCDA3 showed 29.33% and 23.34% reductions in cuticular infection virulence, respectively. However, the CDA family may not contribute to hemocoel infection virulence. Additionally, the sporulation of the insect carcass showed that the three gene deletion mutants were 68.45%, 63.84%, and 56.65% less than WT. Penetration experiments with cicada wings and enzyme activity assays were used to further explore the effect of the fungus on chitin metabolism after gene deletion. Although the three gene deletion mutants penetrated the cicada wings successfully and continued to grow on the underlying medium, their colony sizes were reduced by 29.12% to 47.76%. The CDA enzyme activity of ΔCDA1 and ΔCDA3 decreased by 84.76% and 83.04%, respectively. These data showed that members of the CDA family play a different role in fungal growth, conidial quality, and virulence. IMPORTANCE In this study, we report the roles of CDA family in entomopathogenic fungus B. bassiana. Our results indicated that CDA modulates asexual development and regulates fungal virulence by altering chitin deacetylation and metabolic capacity. CDA affected the biological control potential and life history of B. bassiana by affecting its parasitic and saprophytic life. These findings provide novel insights into the roles of multiple CDA paralogues existing in fungal biocontrol agents.

Comparative Transcriptomic Analyses Reveal the Regulatory Mechanism of Nutrient Limitation-Induced Sporulation of Antrodia cinnamomea in Submerged Fermentation

Antrodia cinnamomea is a precious edible and medicinal mushroom with various biological activities, such as hepatoprotection, antitumor, antivirus, immunoregulation, and intestinal flora regulation. However, the wild fruiting bodies of A. cinnamomea are scarce and expensive. Submerged fermentation based on spore inoculation has become the most efficient and popular artificial culture method for A. cinnamomea. In order to complement the mechanism of asexual sporulation of A. cinnamomea in submerged fermentation, and provide a theoretical basis to further improve the sporulation, comparative transcriptomics analysis using RNA-seq and RT-qPCR were conducted on A. cinnamomea mycelia cultured under different nutritional conditions to reveal the regulatory mechanism underlying the asexual sporulation induced by nutrient limitation. The obtained mechanism is as follows: under nitrogen starvation, the corresponding sensors transmit signals to genes, such as areA and tmpA, and promote their expression. Among these genes, AreA has a direct or indirect effect on flbD and promotes its expression, further enhancing the expression of brlA. Meanwhile, TmpA has a direct or indirect effect on brlA and promotes its expression; under carbon starvation, transport protein Rco-3, as a glucose sensor, directly or indirectly transmits signals to brlA and promotes its expression. BrlA promotes the expression of abaA gene, which further enhances the expression of wetA gene, and wetA then directly leads to asexual sporulation and promotes spore maturation; meanwhile, gulC can also promote cell autolysis, which provides energy and raw materials for sporulation.

Expanding the Biological Role of Lipo-Chitooligosaccharides and Chitooligosaccharides in Laccaria bicolor Growth and Development

The role of lipo-chitooligosaccharides (LCOs) as signaling molecules that mediate the establishment of symbiotic relationships between fungi and plants is being redefined. New evidence suggests that the production of these molecular signals may be more of a common trait in fungi than what was previously thought. LCOs affect different aspects of growth and development in fungi. For the ectomycorrhizal forming fungi, Laccaria bicolor, the production and effects of LCOs have always been studied with a symbiotic plant partner; however, there is still no scientific evidence describing the effects that these molecules have on this organism. Here, we explored the physiological, molecular, and metabolomic changes in L. bicolor when grown in the presence of exogenous sulfated and non-sulfated LCOs, as well as the chitooligomers, chitotetraose (CO4), and chitooctaose (CO8). Physiological data from 21 days post-induction showed reduced fungal growth in response to CO and LCO treatments compared to solvent controls. The underlying molecular changes were interrogated by proteomics, which revealed substantial alterations to biological processes related to growth and development. Moreover, metabolite data showed that LCOs and COs caused a downregulation of organic acids, sugars, and fatty acids. At the same time, exposure to LCOs resulted in the overproduction of lactic acid in L. bicolor. Altogether, these results suggest that these signals might be fungistatic compounds and contribute to current research efforts investigating the emerging impacts of these molecules on fungal growth and development.

Proteomic and Phosphoryproteomic Investigations Reveal that Autophagy-Related Protein 1, a Protein Kinase for Autophagy Initiation, Synchronously Deploys Phosphoregulation on the Ubiquitin-Like Conjugation System in the Mycopathogen Beauveria bassiana

Autophagy is a conserved intracellular degradation mechanism in eukaryotes and is initiated by the protein kinase autophagy-related protein 1 (Atg1). However, except for the autophosphorylation activity of Atg1, the target proteins phosphorylated by Atg1 are largely unknown in filamentous fungi. In Beauveria bassiana (a filamentous insect-pathogenic fungus), Atg1 is indispensable for autophagy and is associated with fungal development. Comparative omics-based analyses revealed that B. bassiana Atg1 (BbAtg1) has key influence on the proteome and phosphoproteome during conidiogenesis. In terms of its physiological functions, the BbAtg1-mediated phosphoproteome is primarily associated with metabolism, signal transduction, cell cycle, and autophagy. At the proteomic level, BbAtg1 mainly regulates genes involved in protein synthesis, protein fate, and protein with binding function. Furthermore, integrative analyses of phosphoproteomic and proteomic data led to the identification of several potential targets regulated by BbAtg1 phosphorylation activity. Notably, we demonstrated that BbAtg1 phosphorylated BbAtg3, an essential component of the ubiquitin-like conjugation system in autophagic progress. Our findings indicate that in addition to being a critical component of the autophagy initiation, Atg1 orchestrates autophagosome elongation via its phosphorylation activity. The data from our study will facilitate future studies on the noncanonical targets of Atg1 and help decipher the Atg1-mediated phosphorylation networks.

IMPORTANCE Autophagy-related protein 1 (Atg1) is a serine/threonine protein kinase for autophagy initiation. In contrast to the unicellular yeast, the target proteins phosphorylated by Atg1 are largely unknown in filamentous fungi. In this study, the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana was used as a representative of filamentous fungi due to its importance in the applied and fundamental research. We revealed that Atg1 mediates the comprehensive proteome and phosphoproteome, which differ from those revealed in yeast. Further investigation revealed that Atg1 directly phosphorylates the E2-like enzyme Atg3 of the ubiquitin-like conjugation system (ULCS), and the phosphorylation of Atg3 is indispensable for ULCS functionality. Interestingly, the phosphorylation site of Atg3 is conserved among a set of insect- and plant-pathogenic fungi but not in human-pathogenic fungi. This study reveals new regulatory mechanisms of autophagy and provides new insights into the evolutionary diversity of the Atg1 kinase signaling pathways among different pathogenic fungi.

The Autophagy-Related Gene CpAtg4 Is Required for Fungal Phenotypic Traits, Stress Tolerance, and Virulence in Cryphonectria parasitica

Autophagy is an evolutionarily ancient process wherein cells are able to break down intracellular contents to support normal physiology and development. Autophagosome formation is regulated by several different proteins, including the key cysteine protease Atg4. The contribution of Atg4 protein in the pathogenic fungus Cryphonectria parasitica, which causes blight in chestnut plants, has not been completely understood. In this context, we aimed to investigate the role of Atg4 during autophagy formation and their contribution to nonautophagic events in C. parasitica. By complementation assay, we determined that the CpAtg4 gene from C. parasitica was able to functionally complement the deletion of yeast Atg4. Using a yeast two-hybrid assay system, we confirmed that CpAtg4 and CpAtg8 directly interact with one another, and amino acids 377 to 409 of CpAtg4 were identified as being responsible for its binding with CpAtg8. The deletion mutant of CpAtg4 did not demonstrate positive monodansylcadaverine staining, which indicated that CpAtg4 is required for autophagy in C. parasitica. Moreover, the ΔCpAtg4 strain exhibited a decrease in aerial hyphae formation and sporulation, and reduction in virulence on apple and chestnut stem. The ΔCpAtg4 strains were also more sensitive to H₂O₂ and Congo red-induced stress. We further determined that amino acids 377 to 409 of CpAtg4 were essential for the function of CpAtg4 in vivo. Together, our findings indicated that CpAtg4 is required for the autophagy formation, fungal phenotypic traits, stress tolerance, and virulence in C. parasitica.

Autophagy-related protein UvAtg7 contributes to mycelial growth, virulence, asexual reproduction and cell stress response in rice false smut fungus Ustilaginoidea virens

Autophagy is a conserved mechanism for nutrient and cytoplasmic components recycling in eukaryotic cell, in which E1-like enzyme Atg7 activates ubiquitin-like conjugation in the autophagy pathway. In plant pathogenic fungi Ustilaginoidea virens, UvAtg7, an ortholog of ATG7 in baker's yeast was identified and functionally investigated. UvAtg7 was confirmed to be essential for autophagy, because the disruption of UvATG7 gene in U. virens completely blocked the fusion of autophagosome-like into vacuoles and catalytic degradation of GFP-UvAtg8 under N-starving condition. The fluorescent signal indicated UvAtg7 protein was dispersed in cytoplasma, but spatially coordinated with core autophagy protein UvAtg8 on occasion. Interestingly, disruption of UvATG7 in U. virens caused slightly reduction in mycelial growth, but resulted in a considerable decrease in virulence, conidia production in YT broth and chlamydospore formation on rice false smut balls. Moreover, the UvATG7 deletion mutants exhibited increased sensitivity to cell wall integrity stress caused by congo red and calcofluor white , meanwhile the UvATG7 deletion mutants showed decreased sensitivity to osmotic stress, cell membrane stress and reactiveoxygen stress caused by sorbitol, sodium dodecyl sulfate and H₂O₂, respectively. All of these defects in UvATG7 deletion mutants could be partially or completely restored by gene complementation. In general, our study indicates that UvAtg7 is essential in autophagy pathway and contributes to mycelial growth, virulence, asexual reproduction and cell stress response in U. virens.

The Protein Kinase A-Dependent Phosphoproteome of the Human Pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus Reveals Diverse Virulence-Associated Kinase Targets

PKA is essential for the virulence of eukaryotic human pathogens. Understanding PKA signaling mechanisms is therefore fundamental to deciphering pathogenesis and developing novel therapies.

Protein kinase A (PKA) signaling plays a critical role in the growth and development of all eukaryotic microbes. However, few direct targets have been characterized in any organism. The fungus Aspergillus fumigatus is a leading infectious cause of death in immunocompromised patients, but the specific molecular mechanisms responsible for its pathogenesis are poorly understood. We used this important pathogen as a platform for a comprehensive and multifaceted interrogation of both the PKA-dependent whole proteome and phosphoproteome in order to elucidate the mechanisms through which PKA signaling regulates invasive microbial disease. Employing advanced quantitative whole-proteomic and phosphoproteomic approaches with two complementary phosphopeptide enrichment strategies, coupled to an independent PKA interactome analysis, we defined distinct PKA-regulated pathways and identified novel direct PKA targets contributing to pathogenesis. We discovered three previously uncharacterized virulence-associated PKA effectors, including an autophagy-related protein, Atg24; a CCAAT-binding transcriptional regulator, HapB; and a CCR4-NOT complex-associated ubiquitin ligase, Not4. Targeted mutagenesis, combined with in vitro kinase assays, multiple murine infection models, structural modeling, and molecular dynamics simulations, was employed to characterize the roles of these new PKA targets in growth, environmental and antimicrobial stress responses, and pathogenesis in a mammalian system. We also elucidated the molecular mechanisms of PKA regulation for these effectors by defining the functionality of phosphorylation at specific PKA target sites. We have comprehensively characterized the PKA-dependent phosphoproteome and validated PKA targets as direct regulators of infectious disease for the first time in any pathogen, providing new insights into PKA signaling and control over microbial pathogenesis.

Pathogenesis-related genes of entomopathogenic fungi

All living things on Earth experience various diseases such as those caused by viruses, bacteria, and fungi. Insects are no exception to this rule, and fungi that cause disease in insects are called entomopathogenic fungi. These fungi have been developed as microbial insecticides and are used to control various pests. Generally, the mode of action of entomopathogenic fungi is divided into the attachment of conidia, germination, penetration, growth, and generation of secondary infectious conidia. In each of these steps, that entomopathogenic fungi use genes in a complex manner (specific or diverse) has been shown by gene knock-out and RNA-sequencing analysis. In this review, the information mechanism of entomopathogenic fungi was divided into six steps: (1) attachment of conidia to host, (2) germination and appressorium, (3) penetration, (4) fungal growth in hemolymph, (5) conidia production on host, and (6) transmission and dispersal. The strategy used by the fungi in each step was described at the genetic level. In addition, an approach for studying the mode of action of the fungi is presented.

Roles of autophagy-related genes in conidiogenesis and blastospore formation, virulence, and stress response of Beauveria bassiana

Autophagy is a conserved intracellular recycling mechanism, in which autophagy-related genes 12 and 16 (ATG12 and ATG16) function in a complex controlling the ubiquitin-like conjugation system. In the insect-pathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana, ATG12 and ATG16 were functionally characterized. Disruption of BbATG12 or BbATG16 resulted in the absence of autophagic bodies under starvation stress. ΔBbATG12 and ΔBbATG16 mutant strains displayed similar defects in asexual development (conidiation and blastospore formation) and tolerance to oxidative stress. ΔBbATG16 strain exhibited the impaired growth on the media with gelatin or chitin as a single nitrogen source, and ΔBbATG12 displayed decreased growth on the media with sucrose, fructose or maltose as a single carbon source. Both BbATG12 and BbATG16 were required for fungal virulence. BbATG16 mutation had more effects on fungal virulence than BbATG12 in topical infection assay, although both genes had similar contributions to fungal virulence in intrahemocoel injection assay. This study indicates that BbATG12 and BbATG16 mediate diverse biological functions in addition to their convergent roles in autophagy.

Cloning, Expression Analysis, 20-Hydroxyecdysone Induction, and RNA Interference Study of Autophagy-Related Gene 8 from Heortia vitessoides Moore

Autophagy is a highly conserved and regulated process in eukaryotic cells and remodels cytoplasm, recovers essential nutrients, and disposes of unwanted cytoplasmic components. Autophagy-related gene (ATG) 8, identified in Heortia vitessoides Moore, which is an oligophagous pest of Aquilaria sinensis (Lour.), was characterized (HvATG8). Multiple sequence alignment showed that HvATG8 possesses highly conserved domain structures. Stage- and tissue-specific expressions indicated that HvATG8 is highly expressed in prepupal, pupal, and adult stages and in the midgut of larvae and abdomen of adults. Lack of function of HvATG8 by RNA interference resulted in a significant decrease in survival rate and an increase in abnormal or nonviable phenotypes in H. vitessoides. Transition rate from larval to pupal stages was 33.0% and from pupal to adult stages was 15.0% after injection. Reduction of ATG8 expression reduced survival of H. vitessoides. Therefore, HvATG8 possibly plays a key role in normal growth stage of H. vitessoides. HvATG8 suppression downregulates HvATG3 expression, suggesting that the two genes are interconnected. Further, HvATG8 expression increased by 20-hydroxyecdysone treatment, starvation, and extreme temperature exposure. Starvation also altered expression of other ATGs in H. vitessoide. This study may be used to guide research on molecular mechanisms of autophagy in insects.

Conserved Autophagy Pathway Contributes to Stress Tolerance and Virulence and Differentially Controls Autophagic Flux Upon Nutrient Starvation in Cryptococcus neoformans

Autophagy is mainly a catabolic process, which is used to cope with nutrient deficiency and various stress conditions. Human environment often imposes various stresses on Cryptococcus neoformans, a major fungal pathogen of immunocompromised individuals; therefore, autophagic response of C. neoformans to these stresses often determines its survival in the host. However, a systematic study on how autophagy related (ATG) genes influence on autophagic flux, virulence, stress response and pathogenicity of C. neoformans is lacking. In this study, 22 ATG-deficient strains were constructed to investigate their roles in virulence, pathogenesis, stress response, starvation tolerance and autophagic flux in C. neoformans. Our results showed that Atg6 and Atg14-03 significantly affect the growth of C. neoformans at 37°C and laccase production. Additionally, atg2Δ and atg6Δ strains were sensitive to oxidative stress caused by hydrogen peroxide. Approximately half of the atgΔ strains displayed higher sensitivity to 1.5 M NaCl and remarkably lower virulence in the Galleria mellonella model than the wild type. Autophagic flux in C. neoformans was dependent on the Atg1-Atg13, Atg5-Atg12-Atg16, and Atg2-Atg18 complexes and Atg11. Cleavage of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) from Atg8 was difficult to detect in these autophagy defective mutants; however, it was detected in the atg3Δ, atg4Δ, atg6Δ and atg14Δ strains. Additionally, no homologs of Saccharomyces cerevisiae ATG10 were detected in C. neoformans. Our results indicate that these ATG genes contribute differentially to carbon and nitrogen starvation tolerance in C. neoformans compared with S. cerevisiae. Overall, this study advances our knowledge of the specific roles of ATG genes in C. neoformans.

Alkaloids from Traditional Chinese Medicine against hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) has become one of the major diseases that are threatening human health in the 21st century. Currently there are many approaches to treat liver cancer, but each has its own advantages and disadvantages. Among various methods of treating liver cancer, natural medicine treatment has achieved promising results because of their superiorities of high efficiency and availability, as well as low side effects. Alkaloids, as a class of natural ingredients derived from traditional Chinese medicines, have previously been shown to exert prominent anti-hepatocarcinogenic effects, through various mechanisms including inhibition of proliferation, metastasis and angiogenesis, changing cell morphology, promoting apoptosis and autophagy, triggering cell cycle arrest, regulating various cancer-related genes as well as pathways and so on. As a consequence, alkaloids suppress the development and progression of liver cancer. In this study, the mechanisms of representative alkaloids against hepatocarcinoma in each class are described systematically according to the structure classification, which mainly divides alkaloids into piperidine alkaloids, isoquinoline alkaloids, indole alkaloids, terpenoids alkaloids, steroidal alkaloids and other alkaloids. Besides using them alone, synergistic effects created together with other chemotherapy drugs and some special preparation methods also have been demonstrated. In this review, we have summarized the potential roles of several common alkaloids in the prevention and treatment of HCC, by revising the preclinical studies, highlighting the potential applications of alkaloids when they function as a therapeutic choice for HCC treatment, and integrating them into clinical practices.