Comparative expression of beta-glucuronidase with five different promoters in transgenic carrot (Daucus carota L.) root and leaf tissues

CRISPR/Cas9 and TALENs generate heritable mutations for genes involved in small RNA processing of Glycine max and Medicago truncatula

Processing of double-stranded RNA precursors into small RNAs is an essential regulator of gene expression in plant development and stress response. Small RNA processing requires the combined activity of a functionally diverse group of molecular components. However, in most of the plant species, there are insufficient mutant resources to functionally characterize each encoding gene. Here, mutations in loci encoding protein machinery involved in small RNA processing in soya bean and Medicago truncatula were generated using the CRISPR/Cas9 and TAL-effector nuclease (TALEN) mutagenesis platforms. An efficient CRISPR/Cas9 reagent was used to create a bi-allelic double mutant for the two soya bean paralogous Double-stranded RNA-binding2 (GmDrb2a and GmDrb2b) genes. These mutations, along with a CRISPR/Cas9-generated mutation of the M. truncatula Hua enhancer1 (MtHen1) gene, were determined to be germ-line transmissible. Furthermore, TALENs were used to generate a mutation within the soya bean Dicer-like2 gene. CRISPR/Cas9 mutagenesis of the soya bean Dicer-like3 gene and the GmHen1a gene was observed in the T0 generation, but these mutations failed to transmit to the T1 generation. The irregular transmission of induced mutations and the corresponding transgenes was investigated by whole-genome sequencing to reveal a spectrum of non-germ-line-targeted mutations and multiple transgene insertion events. Finally, a suite of combinatorial mutant plants were generated by combining the previously reported Gmdcl1a, Gmdcl1b and Gmdcl4b mutants with the Gmdrb2ab double mutant. Altogether, this study demonstrates the synergistic use of different genome engineering platforms to generate a collection of useful mutant plant lines for future study of small RNA processing in legume crops.

Regulation of FATTY ACID ELONGATION1 expression in embryonic and vascular tissues of Brassica napus

The expression of the FATTY ACID ELONGATION1 genes was characterised to provide insight into the regulation of very long chain fatty acid (VLCFA) biosynthesis in Brassica napus embryos. Each of the two rapeseed homoeologous genes (Bn-FAE1.1 and Bn-FAE1.2) encoding isozymes of 3-keto-acylCoA synthase, a subunit of the cytoplasmic acyl-CoA elongase complex that controls the production of elongated fatty acids, are expressed predominantly in developing seeds. The proximal regions of the Bn-FAE1.1 and Bn-FAE1.2 promoters possess strong sequence identity suggesting that transcriptional control of expression is mediated by this region which contains putative cis-elements characteristic of those found in the promoters of genes expressed in embryo and endosperm. Histochemical staining of rapeseed lines expressing Bn-FAE1.1 promoter:reporter gene fusions revealed a strong expression in the embryo cotyledon and axis throughout the maturation phase. Quantitative analyses revealed the region, -331 to -149, exerts a major control on cotyledon specific expression and the level of expression. A second region, -640 to -475, acts positively to enhance expression levels and extends expression of Bn-FAE1.1 into the axis and hypocotyl but also acts negatively to repress expression in the root meristem. The expression of the Bn-FAE1.1 gene was not restricted to the seed but was also detected in the vascular tissues of germinating seedlings and mature plants in the fascicular cambium tissue present in roots, stem and leaf petiole. We propose that Bn-FAE1.1 expression in vascular tissue may contribute VLCFA for barrier lipid synthesis and reflects the ancestral function of FAE1 encoded 3-keto-acylCoA synthase.

An engineered innate immune defense protects grapevines from Pierce disease

We postulated that a synergistic combination of two innate immune functions, pathogen surface recognition and lysis, in a protein chimera would lead to a robust class of engineered antimicrobial therapeutics for protection against pathogens. In support of our hypothesis, we have engineered such a chimera to protect against the gram-negative Xylella fastidiosa (Xf), which causes diseases in multiple plants of economic importance. Here we report the design and delivery of this chimera to target the Xf subspecies fastidiosa (Xff), which causes Pierce disease in grapevines and poses a great threat to the wine-growing regions of California. One domain of this chimera is an elastase that recognizes and cleaves MopB, a conserved outer membrane protein of Xff. The second domain is a lytic peptide, cecropin B, which targets conserved lipid moieties and creates pores in the Xff outer membrane. A flexible linker joins the recognition and lysis domains, thereby ensuring correct folding of the individual domains and synergistic combination of their functions. The chimera transgene is fused with an amino-terminal signal sequence to facilitate delivery of the chimera to the plant xylem, the site of Xff colonization. We demonstrate that the protein chimera expressed in the xylem is able to directly target Xff, suppress its growth, and significantly decrease the leaf scorching and xylem clogging commonly associated with Pierce disease in grapevines. We believe that similar strategies involving protein chimeras can be developed to protect against many diseases caused by human and plant pathogens.

Enhanced disease resistance in transgenic carrot (Daucus carota L.) plants over-expressing a rice cationic peroxidase

Plant class III peroxidases are involved in numerous responses related to pathogen resistance including controlling hydrogen peroxide (H(2)O(2)) levels and lignin formation. Peroxidases catalyze the oxidation of organic compounds using H(2)O(2) as an oxidant. We examined the mechanisms of disease resistance in a transgenic carrot line (P23) which constitutively over-expresses the rice cationic peroxidase OsPrx114 (previously known as PO-C1) and which exhibits enhanced resistance to necrotrophic foliar pathogens. OsPrx114 over-expression led to a slight enhancement of constitutive transcript levels of pathogenesis-related (PR) genes. These transcript levels were dramatically increased in line P23 compared to controls [GUS construct under the control of 35S promoter (35S::GUS)] when tissues were treated with cell wall fragments of the fungal pathogen Sclerotinia sclerotiorum (SS-walls), and to a lesser extent with 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acid. There was no basal increase in basal H(2)O(2) levels in tissues of the line P23. However, during an oxidative burst response elicited by SS-walls, H(2)O(2) accumulation was reduced in line P23 despite, typical media alkalinization associated with oxidative burst responses was observed, suggesting that OsPrx114 was involved in rapid H(2)O(2) consumption during the oxidative burst response. Tap roots of line P23 had increased lignin formation in the outer periderm tissues, which was further increased during challenge inoculation with Alternaria radicina. Plant susceptibility to a biotrophic pathogen, Erysiphe heraclei, was not affected. Disease resistance to necrotrophic pathogens in carrot as a result of OsPrx114 over-expression is manifested through increased PR transcript accumulation, rapid removal of H(2)O(2) during oxidative burst response and enhanced lignin formation.

Expression pattern conferred by a glutamic acid-rich protein gene promoter in field-grown transgenic cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz)

A major constraint for incorporating new traits into cassava using biotechnology is the limited list of known/tested promoters that encourage the expression of transgenes in the cassava's starchy roots. Based on a previous report on the glutamic-acid-rich protein Pt2L4, indicating a preferential expression in roots, we cloned the corresponding gene including promoter sequence. A promoter fragment (CP2; 731 bp) was evaluated for its potential to regulate the expression of the reporter gene GUSPlus in transgenic cassava plants grown in the field. Intense GUS staining was observed in storage roots and vascular stem tissues; less intense staining in leaves; and none in the pith. Consistent with determined mRNA levels of the GUSPlus gene, fluorometric analyses revealed equal activities in root pulp and stems, but 3.5 times less in leaves. In a second approach, the activity of a longer promoter fragment (CP1) including an intrinsic intron was evaluated in carrot plants. CP1 exhibited a pronounced tissue preference, conferring high expression in the secondary phloem and vascular cambium of roots, but six times lower expression levels in leaf vascular tissues. Thus, CP1 and CP2 may be useful tools to improve nutritional and agronomical traits of cassava by genetic engineering. To date, this is the first study presenting field data on the specificity and potential of promoters for transgenic cassava.

Levels and Stability of Expression of Transgenes

It is well known that in a given cell, at a particular time, only a fraction of the entire genome is expressed. Expression of a gene, nuclear, or organellar starts with the onset of transcription and ends in the synthesis of the functional protein. The regulation of gene expression is a complex process that requires the coordinated activity of different proteins and nucleic acids that ultimately determine whether a gene is transcribed, and if transcribed, whether it results in the production of a protein that develops a phenotype. The same also holds true for transgenic crops, which lie at the very core of insert design.

There are multiple checkpoints at which the expression of a gene can be regulated and controlled. Much of the emphasis of studies related to gene expression has been on regulation of gene transcription, and a number of methods are used to effect the control of gene expression. Controlling transgene expression for a commercially valuable trait is necessary to capture its value. Many gene functions are either lethal or produce severe deformity (resulting in loss of value) if over-expressed. Thus, expression of a transgene at a particular site or in response to a particular elicitor is always desirable.

Broad-spectrum disease resistance to necrotrophic and biotrophic pathogens in transgenic carrots (Daucus carota L.) expressing an Arabidopsis NPR1 gene

The development of transgenic plants highly resistant to a range of pathogens using traditional signal gene expression strategies has been largely ineffective. Modification of systemic acquired resistance (SAR) through the overexpression of a controlling gene such as NPR1 (non-expressor of PR genes) offers an attractive alternative for augmenting the plants innate defense system. The Arabidopsis (At) NPR1 gene was successfully introduced into 'Nantes Coreless' carrot under control of a CaMV 35S promoter and two independent transgenic lines (NPR1-I and NPR1-XI) were identified by Southern and Northern blot hybridization. Both lines were phenotypically normal compared with non-transformed carrots. Northern analysis did not indicate constitutive or spontaneous induction in carrot cultures of SAR-related genes (DcPR-1, 2, 4, 5 or DcPAL). The duration and intensity of expression of DcPR-1, 2 and 5 genes were greatly increased compared with controls when the lines were treated with purified cell wall fragments of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum as well as with 2,6-dichloroisonicotinic acid. The two lines were challenged with the necrotrophic pathogens Botrytis cinerea, Alternaria radicina and S. sclerotiorum on the foliage and A. radicina on the taproots. Both lines exhibited 35-50% reduction in disease symptoms on the foliage and roots when compared with non-transgenic controls. Leaves challenged with the biotrophic pathogen Erysiphe heraclei or the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas hortorum exhibited 90 and 80% reduction in disease development on the transgenic lines, respectively. The overexpression of the SAR controlling master switch in carrot tissues offers the ability to control a wide range of different pathogens, for which there is currently little genetic resistance available.

Chitinase and beta-1,3-glucanase enzyme production by the mycoparasite Clonostachys rosea f. catenulata against fungal plant pathogens

Clonostachys rosea f. catenulata (syn. Gliocladium catenulatum) is an effective fungal biological agent against Fusarium root and stem rot and Pythium damping-off diseases on cucumber plants. Both chitinase and beta-1,3-glucanase enzymes were produced when C. rosea was grown on a synthetic medium containing chitin or laminarin as a sole carbon source, respectively. Chitinase production was also induced by Fusarium cell walls, while beta-1,3-glucanase activity was induced by both Fusarium and Pythium cell walls, as well as by growth on homogenized cucumber roots and on low-carbon media. Mycelial growth of Fusarium and Pythium, when exposed to C. rosea culture filtrates that contain glucanase activity, was significantly reduced compared with the controls, and cell walls of both pathogens were degraded. On excised cucumber roots, hyphae of C. rosea formed appressorium-like structures and coiled around hyphae of Pythium. In culture, C. rosea caused localized degradation of Fusarium hyphae. Cucumber root tissues colonized by C. rosea showed higher levels of beta-1,3-glucanase activity at 7 days post-application compared with untreated controls. To determine if this activity was derived from C. rosea, glucanase isoforms were separated on activity gels. Fungal culture filtrates and root extracts contained the same predominant 20 kDa isoform. Reverse-transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) using primers designed to amplify a beta-1,3-glucanase gene in C. rosea confirmed glucanase expression on roots. These results show that C. rosea produces beta-1,3-glucanase in situ, which can degrade hyphae of Fusarium and Pythium and contribute to biological control efficacy.