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Mallick A, Dacks AM, Gaudry Q. Olfactory Critical Periods: How Odor Exposure Shapes the Developing Brain in Mice and Flies. BIOLOGY 2024; 13:94. [PMID: 38392312 PMCID: PMC10886215 DOI: 10.3390/biology13020094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2023] [Revised: 01/26/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/24/2024]
Abstract
Neural networks have an extensive ability to change in response to environmental stimuli. This flexibility peaks during restricted windows of time early in life called critical periods. The ubiquitous occurrence of this form of plasticity across sensory modalities and phyla speaks to the importance of critical periods for proper neural development and function. Extensive investigation into visual critical periods has advanced our knowledge of the molecular events and key processes that underlie the impact of early-life experience on neuronal plasticity. However, despite the importance of olfaction for the overall survival of an organism, the cellular and molecular basis of olfactory critical periods have not garnered extensive study compared to visual critical periods. Recent work providing a comprehensive mapping of the highly organized olfactory neuropil and its development has in turn attracted a growing interest in how these circuits undergo plasticity during critical periods. Here, we perform a comparative review of olfactory critical periods in fruit flies and mice to provide novel insight into the importance of early odor exposure in shaping neural circuits and highlighting mechanisms found across sensory modalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahana Mallick
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Andrew M Dacks
- Department of Biology, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26505, USA
| | - Quentin Gaudry
- Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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2
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Morimoto J, Wenzel M, Derous D, Henry Y, Colinet H. The transcriptomic signature of responses to larval crowding in Drosophila melanogaster. INSECT SCIENCE 2023; 30:539-554. [PMID: 36115064 PMCID: PMC10947363 DOI: 10.1111/1744-7917.13113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2022] [Revised: 08/22/2022] [Accepted: 08/27/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Intraspecific competition at the larval stage is an important ecological factor affecting life-history, adaptation and evolutionary trajectory in holometabolous insects. However, the molecular pathways underpinning these ecological processes are poorly characterized. We reared Drosophila melanogaster at three egg densities (5, 60, and 300 eggs/mL) and sequenced the transcriptomes of pooled third-instar larvae. We also examined emergence time, egg-to-adult viability, adult mass, and adult sex-ratio at each density. Medium crowding had minor detrimental effects on adult phenotypes compared to low density and yielded 24 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), including several chitinase enzymes. In contrast, high crowding had substantial detrimental effects on adult phenotypes and yielded 2107 DEGs. Among these, upregulated gene sets were enriched in sugar, steroid and amino acid metabolism as well as DNA replication pathways, whereas downregulated gene sets were enriched in ABC transporters, taurine, Toll/Imd signaling, and P450 xenobiotics metabolism pathways. Overall, our findings show that larval crowding has a large consistent effect on several molecular pathways (i.e., core responses) with few pathways displaying density-specific regulation (i.e., idiosyncratic responses). This provides important insights into how holometabolous insects respond to intraspecific competition during development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juliano Morimoto
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of AberdeenAberdeenUnited Kingdom
- Programa de Pós‐graduação em Ecologia e ConservaçãoUniversidade Federal do ParanáCuritibaBrazil
- Institute of MathematicsKing's CollegeUniversity of AberdeenAberdeenUnited Kingdom
| | - Marius Wenzel
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of AberdeenAberdeenUnited Kingdom
| | - Davina Derous
- School of Biological SciencesUniversity of AberdeenAberdeenUnited Kingdom
| | - Youn Henry
- CNRS, ECOBIO (Ecosystèmes, biodiversité, évolution)—UMR 6553University of RennesRennesFrance
- Department of Ecology and EvolutionUniversity of LausanneLausanneSwitzerland
| | - Herve Colinet
- CNRS, ECOBIO (Ecosystèmes, biodiversité, évolution)—UMR 6553University of RennesRennesFrance
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3
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One genome, multiple phenotypes: decoding the evolution and mechanisms of environmentally induced developmental plasticity in insects. Biochem Soc Trans 2023; 51:675-689. [PMID: 36929376 DOI: 10.1042/bst20210995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 02/16/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023]
Abstract
Plasticity in developmental processes gives rise to remarkable environmentally induced phenotypes. Some of the most striking and well-studied examples of developmental plasticity are seen in insects. For example, beetle horn size responds to nutritional state, butterfly eyespots are enlarged in response to temperature and humidity, and environmental cues also give rise to the queen and worker castes of eusocial insects. These phenotypes arise from essentially identical genomes in response to an environmental cue during development. Developmental plasticity is taxonomically widespread, affects individual fitness, and may act as a rapid-response mechanism allowing individuals to adapt to changing environments. Despite the importance and prevalence of developmental plasticity, there remains scant mechanistic understanding of how it works or evolves. In this review, we use key examples to discuss what is known about developmental plasticity in insects and identify fundamental gaps in the current knowledge. We highlight the importance of working towards a fully integrated understanding of developmental plasticity in a diverse range of species. Furthermore, we advocate for the use of comparative studies in an evo-devo framework to address how developmental plasticity works and how it evolves.
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4
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Bleichman I, Yadav P, Ayali A. Visual processing and collective motion-related decision-making in desert locusts. Proc Biol Sci 2023; 290:20221862. [PMID: 36651041 PMCID: PMC9845972 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2022.1862] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Collectively moving groups of animals rely on the decision-making of locally interacting individuals in order to maintain swarm cohesion. However, the complex and noisy visual environment poses a major challenge to the extraction and processing of relevant information. We addressed this challenge by studying swarming-related decision-making in desert locust last-instar nymphs. Controlled visual stimuli, in the form of random dot kinematograms, were presented to tethered locust nymphs in a trackball set-up, while monitoring movement trajectory and walking parameters. In a complementary set of experiments, the neurophysiological basis of the observed behavioural responses was explored. Our results suggest that locusts use filtering and discrimination upon encountering multiple stimuli simultaneously. Specifically, we show that locusts are sensitive to differences in speed at the individual conspecific level, and to movement coherence at the group level, and may use these to filter out non-relevant stimuli. The locusts also discriminate and assign different weights to different stimuli, with an observed interactive effect of stimulus size, relative abundance and motion direction. Our findings provide insights into the cognitive abilities of locusts in the domain of decision-making and visual-based collective motion, and support locusts as a model for investigating sensory-motor integration and motion-related decision-making in the intricate swarm environment.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pratibha Yadav
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, 6997801 Israel,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 6997801 Israel
| | - Amir Ayali
- School of Zoology, Tel Aviv University, 6997801 Israel,Sagol School of Neuroscience, Tel Aviv University, 6997801 Israel
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5
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Chen M, Sokolowski MB. How Social Experience and Environment Impacts Behavioural Plasticity in Drosophila. Fly (Austin) 2021; 16:68-84. [PMID: 34852730 DOI: 10.1080/19336934.2021.1989248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Abstract
An organism's behaviour is influenced by its social environment. Experiences such as social isolation or crowding may have profound short or long-term effects on an individual's behaviour. The composition of the social environment also depends on the genetics and previous experiences of the individuals present, leading to additional potential outcomes from each social interaction. In this article, we review selected literature related to the social environment of the model organism Drosophila melanogaster, and how Drosophila respond to variation in their social experiences throughout their lifetimes. We focus on the effects of social environment on behavioural phenotypes such as courtship, aggression, and group dynamics, as well as other phenotypes such as development and physiology. The consequences of phenotypic plasticity due to social environment are discussed with respect to the ecology and evolution of Drosophila. We also relate these studies to laboratory research practices involving Drosophila and other animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Molly Chen
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Current Affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1 Canada
| | - Marla B Sokolowski
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,Child and Brain Development Program, Canadian Institute for Advanced Research (CIFAR), Toronto, Ontario M5G 1Z8, Canada
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6
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Dombrovski M, Condron B. Critical periods shaping the social brain: A perspective from Drosophila. Bioessays 2020; 43:e2000246. [PMID: 33215730 DOI: 10.1002/bies.202000246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2020] [Revised: 09/28/2020] [Accepted: 09/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Many sensory processing regions of the central brain undergo critical periods of experience-dependent plasticity. During this time ethologically relevant information shapes circuit structure and function. The mechanisms that control critical period timing and duration are poorly understood, and this is of special importance for those later periods of development, which often give rise to complex cognitive functions such as social behavior. Here, we review recent findings in Drosophila, an organism that has some unique experimental advantages, and introduce novel views for manipulating plasticity in the post-embryonic brain. Critical periods in larval and young adult flies resemble classic vertebrate models with distinct onset and termination, display clear connections with complex behaviors, and provide opportunities to control the time course of plasticity. These findings may extend our knowledge about mechanisms underlying extension and reopening of critical periods, a concept that has great relevance to many human neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Dombrovski
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
| | - Barry Condron
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia, USA
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Dombrovski M, Kuhar R, Mitchell A, Shelton H, Condron B. Cooperative foraging during larval stage affects fitness in Drosophila. J Comp Physiol A Neuroethol Sens Neural Behav Physiol 2020; 206:743-755. [PMID: 32623493 PMCID: PMC7392940 DOI: 10.1007/s00359-020-01434-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2020] [Revised: 06/18/2020] [Accepted: 06/26/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Cooperative behavior can confer advantages to animals. This is especially true for cooperative foraging which provides fitness benefits through more efficient acquisition and consumption of food. While examples of group foraging have been widely described, the principles governing formation of such aggregations and rules that determine group membership remain poorly understood. Here, we take advantage of an experimental model system featuring cooperative foraging behavior in Drosophila. Under crowded conditions, fly larvae form coordinated digging groups (clusters), where individuals are linked together by sensory cues and group membership requires prior experience. However, fitness benefits of Drosophila larval clustering remain unknown. We demonstrate that animals raised in crowded conditions on food partially processed by other larvae experience a developmental delay presumably due to the decreased nutritional value of the substrate. Intriguingly, same conditions promote the formation of cooperative foraging clusters which further extends larval stage compared to non-clustering animals. Remarkably, this developmental retardation also results in a relative increase in wing size, serving an indicator of adult fitness. Thus, we find that the clustering-induced developmental delay is accompanied by fitness benefits. Therefore, cooperative foraging, while delaying development, may have evolved to give Drosophila larvae benefits when presented with competition for limited food resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Dombrovski
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
- Department of Biological Chemistry, HHMI, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
| | - Rives Kuhar
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
| | - Alexandra Mitchell
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
| | - Hunter Shelton
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA
| | - Barry Condron
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, 22901, USA.
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8
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Ferreira CH, Moita MA. What can a non-eusocial insect tell us about the neural basis of group behaviour? CURRENT OPINION IN INSECT SCIENCE 2019; 36:118-124. [PMID: 31563022 DOI: 10.1016/j.cois.2019.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 08/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/03/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Group behaviour has been extensively studied in canonically social swarming, shoaling and flocking vertebrates and invertebrates, providing great insight into the behavioural and ecological aspects of group living. However, the search for its neuronal basis is lagging behind. In the natural environment, Drosophila melanogaster, increasingly used as a model to study neuronal circuits and behaviour, spend their lives surrounded by several conspecifics of different stages, as well as heterospecifics. Despite their dynamic multi-organism natural environment, the neuronal basis of social behaviours has been typically studied in dyadic interactions, such as mating or aggression. This review will focus on recent studies regarding how the behaviour of fruit flies can be shaped by the nature of the surrounding group. We argue that the rich social environment of Drosophila melanogaster, its arsenal of neurogenetic tools and the ability to use large sample sizes for detailed quantitative behavioural analysis makes this species ideal for mechanistic studies of group behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clara H Ferreira
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal.
| | - Marta A Moita
- Champalimaud Research, Champalimaud Center for the Unknown, 1400-038 Lisbon, Portugal.
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9
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Dombrovski M, Kim A, Poussard L, Vaccari A, Acton S, Spillman E, Condron B, Yuan Q. A Plastic Visual Pathway Regulates Cooperative Behavior in Drosophila Larvae. Curr Biol 2019; 29:1866-1876.e5. [PMID: 31130457 PMCID: PMC6615885 DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2019.04.060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 03/11/2019] [Accepted: 04/23/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Cooperative behavior emerges in biological systems through coordinated actions among individuals [1, 2]. Although widely observed across animal species, the cellular and molecular mechanisms underlying the establishment and maintenance of cooperative behaviors remain largely unknown [3]. To characterize the circuit mechanisms serving the needs of independent individuals and social groups, we investigated cooperative digging behavior in Drosophila larvae [4-6]. Although chemical and mechanical sensations are important for larval aggregation at specific sites [7-9], an individual larva's ability to participate in a cooperative burrowing cluster relies on direct visual input as well as visual and social experience during development. In addition, vision modulates cluster dynamics by promoting coordinated movements between pairs of larvae [5]. To determine the specific pathways within the larval visual circuit underlying cooperative social clustering, we examined larval photoreceptors (PRs) and the downstream local interneurons (lOLPs) using anatomical and functional studies [10, 11]. Our results indicate that rhodopsin-6-expressing-PRs (Rh6-PRs) and lOLPs are required for both cooperative clustering and movement detection. Remarkably, visual deprivation and social isolation strongly impact the structural and functional connectivity between Rh6-PRs and lOLPs, while at the same time having no effect on the adjacent rhodopsin-5-expressing PRs (Rh5-PRs). Together, our findings demonstrate that a specific larval visual pathway involved in social interactions undergoes experience-dependent modifications during development, suggesting that plasticity in sensory circuits could act as the cellular substrate for social learning, a possible mechanism allowing an animal to integrate into a malleable social environment and engage in complex social behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark Dombrovski
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, 90 Geldard Drive, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA
| | - Anna Kim
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Leanne Poussard
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, 90 Geldard Drive, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA
| | - Andrea Vaccari
- Department of Computer Science, Middlebury College, Bicentennial Way, Middlebury, VT 05753, USA
| | - Scott Acton
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Virginia, 351 McCormick Road, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA
| | - Emma Spillman
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Barry Condron
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, 90 Geldard Drive, Charlottesville, VA 22901, USA.
| | - Quan Yuan
- National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, NIH, 31 Center Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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10
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Humberg TH, Bruegger P, Afonso B, Zlatic M, Truman JW, Gershow M, Samuel A, Sprecher SG. Dedicated photoreceptor pathways in Drosophila larvae mediate navigation by processing either spatial or temporal cues. Nat Commun 2018; 9:1260. [PMID: 29593252 PMCID: PMC5871836 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-018-03520-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
To integrate changing environmental cues with high spatial and temporal resolution is critical for animals to orient themselves. Drosophila larvae show an effective motor program to navigate away from light sources. How the larval visual circuit processes light stimuli to control navigational decision remains unknown. The larval visual system is composed of two sensory input channels, Rhodopsin5 (Rh5) and Rhodopsin6 (Rh6) expressing photoreceptors (PRs). We here characterize how spatial and temporal information are used to control navigation. Rh6-PRs are required to perceive temporal changes of light intensity during head casts, while Rh5-PRs are required to control behaviors that allow navigation in response to spatial cues. We characterize how distinct behaviors are modulated and identify parallel acting and converging features of the visual circuit. Functional features of the larval visual circuit highlight the principle of how early in a sensory circuit distinct behaviors may be computed by partly overlapping sensory pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Pascal Bruegger
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | - Bruno Afonso
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, 20147, VA, USA
| | - Marta Zlatic
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, 20147, VA, USA.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, Cambridge, UK
| | - James W Truman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, 20147, VA, USA
| | - Marc Gershow
- Department of Physics and Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, 10003, NY, USA
| | - Aravinthan Samuel
- Department of Physics and Center for Brain Science, Harvard University, Cambridge, 02138, MA, USA
| | - Simon G Sprecher
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, 1700, Fribourg, Switzerland.
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11
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Dombrovski M, Poussard L, Moalem K, Kmecova L, Hogan N, Schott E, Vaccari A, Acton S, Condron B. Cooperative Behavior Emerges among Drosophila Larvae. Curr Biol 2017; 27:2821-2826.e2. [DOI: 10.1016/j.cub.2017.07.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2017] [Revised: 07/03/2017] [Accepted: 07/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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12
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Larderet I, Fritsch PM, Gendre N, Neagu-Maier GL, Fetter RD, Schneider-Mizell CM, Truman JW, Zlatic M, Cardona A, Sprecher SG. Organization of the Drosophila larval visual circuit. eLife 2017; 6:28387. [PMID: 30726702 PMCID: PMC5577918 DOI: 10.7554/elife.28387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2017] [Accepted: 08/07/2017] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Visual systems transduce, process and transmit light-dependent environmental cues. Computation of visual features depends on photoreceptor neuron types (PR) present, organization of the eye and wiring of the underlying neural circuit. Here, we describe the circuit architecture of the visual system of Drosophila larvae by mapping the synaptic wiring diagram and neurotransmitters. By contacting different targets, the two larval PR-subtypes create two converging pathways potentially underlying the computation of ambient light intensity and temporal light changes already within this first visual processing center. Locally processed visual information then signals via dedicated projection interneurons to higher brain areas including the lateral horn and mushroom body. The stratified structure of the larval optic neuropil (LON) suggests common organizational principles with the adult fly and vertebrate visual systems. The complete synaptic wiring diagram of the LON paves the way to understanding how circuits with reduced numerical complexity control wide ranges of behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Larderet
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | - Nanae Gendre
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
| | | | - Richard D Fetter
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | | | - James W Truman
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Marta Zlatic
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Albert Cardona
- Janelia Research Campus, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Ashburn, United States
| | - Simon G Sprecher
- Department of Biology, University of Fribourg, Fribourg, Switzerland
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13
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Kohsaka H, Guertin PA, Nose A. Neural Circuits Underlying Fly Larval Locomotion. Curr Pharm Des 2017; 23:1722-1733. [PMID: 27928962 PMCID: PMC5470056 DOI: 10.2174/1381612822666161208120835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 12/01/2016] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Locomotion is a complex motor behavior that may be expressed in different ways using a variety of strategies depending upon species and pathological or environmental conditions. Quadrupedal or bipedal walking, running, swimming, flying and gliding constitute some of the locomotor modes enabling the body, in all cases, to move from one place to another. Despite these apparent differences in modes of locomotion, both vertebrate and invertebrate species share, at least in part, comparable neural control mechanisms for locomotor rhythm and pattern generation and modulation. Significant advances have been made in recent years in studies of the genetic aspects of these control systems. Findings made specifically using Drosophila (fruit fly) models and preparations have contributed to further understanding of the key role of genes in locomotion. This review focuses on some of the main findings made in larval fruit flies while briefly summarizing the basic advantages of using this powerful animal model for studying the neural locomotor system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kohsaka
- Department of Complexity Science and Engineering, University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8561, Japan
| | - Pierre A. Guertin
- Department of Psychiatry & Neurosciences, Laval University, Québec City, QC, Canada
| | - Akinao Nose
- Department of Complexity Science and Engineering, University of Tokyo, Kashiwanoha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277-8561, Japan
- Department of Physics, Graduate School of Science, University of Tokyo, Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan
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14
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Lesne P, Cazalé-Debat L, Ramon Portugal F, Trabalon M, Jeanson R. Early experience and social performance in spiderlings. Anim Behav 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.anbehav.2016.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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