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Ion regulation at gills precedes gas exchange and the origin of vertebrates. Nature 2022; 610:699-703. [PMID: 36261526 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-022-05331-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Gas exchange and ion regulation at gills have key roles in the evolution of vertebrates1-4. Gills are hypothesized to have first acquired these important homeostatic functions from the skin in stem vertebrates, facilitating the evolution of larger, more-active modes of life2,3,5. However, this hypothesis lacks functional support in relevant taxa. Here we characterize the function of gills and skin in a vertebrate (lamprey ammocoete; Entosphenus tridentatus), a cephalochordate (amphioxus; Branchiostoma floridae) and a hemichordate (acorn worm; Saccoglossus kowalevskii) with the presumed burrowing, filter-feeding traits of vertebrate ancestors6-9. We provide functional support for a vertebrate origin of gas exchange at the gills with increasing body size and activity, as direct measurements in vivo reveal that gills are the dominant site of gas exchange only in ammocoetes, and only with increasing body size or challenges to oxygen supply and demand. Conversely, gills of all three taxa are implicated in ion regulation. Ammocoete gills are responsible for all ion flux at all body sizes, whereas molecular markers for ion regulation are higher in the gills than in the skin of amphioxus and acorn worms. This suggests that ion regulation at gills has an earlier origin than gas exchange that is unrelated to vertebrate size and activity-perhaps at the very inception of pharyngeal pores in stem deuterostomes.
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2
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Yanagitsuru YR, Daza IY, Lewis LS, Hobbs JA, Hung TC, Connon RE, Fangue NA. Growth, osmoregulation and ionoregulation of longfin smelt ( Spirinchus thaleichthys) yolk-sac larvae at different salinities. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2022; 10:coac041. [PMID: 35795015 PMCID: PMC9252123 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coac041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2021] [Revised: 04/22/2022] [Accepted: 06/02/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Longfin smelt (Spirinchus thaleichthys) is a threatened anadromous fish species that spawns in freshwater to moderately brackish (i.e. 5-10 ppt) reaches of the upper San Francisco Estuary and has declined to ~1% of its pre-1980s abundances. Despite 50+ years of population monitoring, the efficacy of 10+ years of conservation efforts for longfin smelt remain uncertain due to a limited understanding of how the species responds to environmental variation, such as salinity. For example, high mortality during larval stages has prevented culture efforts from closing the life cycle in captivity. Here, we investigated the effects of salinity on longfin smelt yolk-sac larvae. Newly hatched larvae from four single-pair crosses were acutely transferred to and reared at salinities of 0.4, 5, 10, 20 or 32 ppt. We compared whole-body water and sodium ion (Na+) content, notochord length and yolk-sac volume at 12, 24, 48, 72, and 96 hours post-transfer for each salinity treatment. We found that larvae maintained osmotic and ionic balance at 0.4-10 ppt, whereas salinities ˃10 ppt resulted in decreased water and increased whole-body Na+ content. We also found that larvae grew largest and survived the longest when reared at 5 and 10 ppt, respectively, and that yolk resorption stalled at 0.4 ppt. Finally, there were significant but small interclutch variations in responses to different salinities, with clutch accounting for <8% of the variance in our statistical models. Overall, our results indicate that longfin smelt yolk-sac larvae likely perform best at moderately brackish conditions, thus yielding a mechanism that explains their distribution in field surveys and providing key information for future conservation efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuzo R Yanagitsuru
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Itza Y Daza
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Levi S Lewis
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - James A Hobbs
- Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
- California Department of Fish and Wildlife, Bay-Delta IEP, Stockton, CA, 95206, USA
| | - Tien-Chieh Hung
- Fish Conservation and Culture Laboratory, Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA
| | - Richard E Connon
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology, and Cell Biology, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616, USA
| | - Nann A Fangue
- Corresponding author: Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, University of California, Davis, CA 95616, USA. Tel: 530-752-4997.
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3
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Kaivarainen EI, Rendakov NL, Efremov DA, Nemova NN. Na +/K +-ATPase Activity in Smolts of Pink Salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (Walbaum, 1792) from the White Sea Exposed to Fresh, Estuarine, and Sea Water. DOKLADY BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES : PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY OF SCIENCES OF THE USSR, BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES SECTIONS 2021; 501:201-205. [PMID: 34962607 DOI: 10.1134/s0012496621060041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Revised: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) activity in smolts of pink salmon Oncorhynchus gorbuscha (a salmon species introduced in 1959 into the rivers of the Kola Peninsula) was studied in a ten-day cage experiment with fresh, estuarine, and sea water; the fish were caught during seaward migration in the Indera River of the White Sea basin. The development of tolerance to increased salinity in pink salmon smolts was accompanied by NKA activation. In estuarine water characterized by salinity fluctuations (from fresh to sea water) and in the marine environment (28‰), the NKA activity in pink salmon smolts was significantly higher than in the individuals kept in the cages installed in fresh water. The hypoosmoregulatory ability of pink salmon fry was registered, these data indicated that smoltification in this fish species took place in early ontogenesis. The changes in NKA activity evidenced the readiness of migrating pink salmon fry for the marine phase of their life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- E I Kaivarainen
- Institute of Biology, Karelian Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 185000, Petrozavodsk, Russia
| | - N L Rendakov
- Institute of Biology, Karelian Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 185000, Petrozavodsk, Russia.
| | - D A Efremov
- Institute of Biology, Karelian Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 185000, Petrozavodsk, Russia
| | - N N Nemova
- Institute of Biology, Karelian Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 185000, Petrozavodsk, Russia
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4
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Gallagher EJ, Harter TS, Brauner CJ. The ontogeny of Na + balance during rapid smoltification in pink salmon (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha). J Comp Physiol B 2020; 191:17-28. [PMID: 32970173 DOI: 10.1007/s00360-020-01309-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/15/2020] [Revised: 08/02/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Pink salmon hatch in fresh water, but their highly anadromous life history requires them to migrate into the ocean immediately after gravel-emergence, at a very small size. During their down-river migration these larvae undergo rapid smoltification that completely remodels their osmoregulatory physiology. At this time, the larvae reportedly have high whole-body Na+ contents and we hypothesised that the active accumulation of internal Na+ occurs in preparation for ocean entry. Using a comparative approach, the present study characterised the ontogeny of Na+ regulation in larvae of the anadromous pink salmon and the fresh-water rainbow trout. Our results indicate that larvae from both species actively accumulated Na+; however, whole-body Na+ content was higher in rainbow trout larvae compared to pink salmon. The time-course of this response was similar in the two species, with highest Na+-uptake rates ([Formula: see text]) shortly after yolk sac absorption, but the mechanism of Na+ accumulation differed between the species. Rainbow trout larvae greatly increased [Formula: see text] to overcompensate for a large simultaneous increase in Na+-efflux rate ([Formula: see text]), whereas pink salmon mounted a smaller increase in [Formula: see text] while maintaining tight control over [Formula: see text], which is supported by a significantly lower paracellular permeability. Our results indicate that the transient accumulation of internal Na+ is not a unique feature of the highly anadromous life history in pink salmon and may be a common ontogenetic pattern during larval development in salmonids; and perhaps it is associated with the development of the cardiovascular system during the larvae's transition to a more active lifestyle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily J Gallagher
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Till S Harter
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada. .,Marine Biology Research Division, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, CA, 92093, USA.
| | - Colin J Brauner
- Department of Zoology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, V6T 1Z4, Canada
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Houde ALS, Günther OP, Strohm J, Ming TJ, Li S, Kaukinen KH, Patterson DA, Farrell AP, Hinch SG, Miller KM. Discovery and validation of candidate smoltification gene expression biomarkers across multiple species and ecotypes of Pacific salmonids. CONSERVATION PHYSIOLOGY 2019; 7:coz051. [PMID: 31620289 PMCID: PMC6788492 DOI: 10.1093/conphys/coz051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2018] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Early marine survival of juvenile salmon is intimately associated with their physiological condition during smoltification and ocean entry. Smoltification (parr-smolt transformation) is a developmental process that allows salmon to acquire seawater tolerance in preparation for marine living. Traditionally, this developmental process has been monitored using gill Na+/K+-ATPase (NKA) activity or plasma hormones, but gill gene expression offers the possibility of another method. Here, we describe the discovery of candidate genes from gill tissue for staging smoltification using comparisons of microarray studies with particular focus on the commonalities between anadromous Rainbow trout and Sockeye salmon datasets, as well as a literature comparison encompassing more species. A subset of 37 candidate genes mainly from the microarray analyses was used for TaqMan quantitative PCR assay design and their expression patterns were validated using gill samples from four groups, representing three species and two ecotypes: Coho salmon, Sockeye salmon, stream-type Chinook salmon and ocean-type Chinook salmon. The best smoltification biomarkers, as measured by consistent changes across these four groups, were genes involved in ion regulation, oxygen transport and immunity. Smoltification gene expression patterns (using the top 10 biomarkers) were confirmed by significant correlations with NKA activity and were associated with changes in body brightness, caudal fin darkness and caudal peduncle length. We incorporate gene expression patterns of pre-smolt, smolt and de-smolt trials from acute seawater transfers from a companion study to develop a preliminary seawater tolerance classification model for ocean-type Chinook salmon. This work demonstrates the potential of gene expression biomarkers to stage smoltification and classify juveniles as pre-smolt, smolt or de-smolt.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aimee Lee S Houde
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Oliver P Günther
- Günther Analytics, 402-5775 Hampton Place, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 2G6, Canada
| | - Jeffrey Strohm
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Tobi J Ming
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Shaorong Li
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - Karia H Kaukinen
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9T 6N7, Canada
| | - David A Patterson
- School of Resource and Environmental Management, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, British Columbia, V5A 1S6, Canada
| | - Anthony P Farrell
- Department of Zoology and Faculty of Land and Food Systems, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Scott G Hinch
- Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, British Columbia, V6T 1Z4, Canada
| | - Kristina M Miller
- Pacific Biological Station, Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Nanaimo, British Columbia, V9T 6N7, Canada
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Armstrong JD, Bean CW, Wells A. The Scottish invasion of pink salmon in 2017. JOURNAL OF FISH BIOLOGY 2018; 93:8-11. [PMID: 29956309 DOI: 10.1111/jfb.13680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 05/24/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- John D Armstrong
- Freshwater Fisheries Laboratory, Marine Scotland Science, Pitlochry, UK
| | | | - Alan Wells
- Fisheries Management Scotland, Edinburgh, UK
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Incardona JP, Scholz NL. The influence of heart developmental anatomy on cardiotoxicity-based adverse outcome pathways in fish. AQUATIC TOXICOLOGY (AMSTERDAM, NETHERLANDS) 2016; 177:515-25. [PMID: 27447099 DOI: 10.1016/j.aquatox.2016.06.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
The developing fish heart is vulnerable to a diverse array of toxic chemical contaminants in freshwater, estuarine, and marine habitats. Globally occurring examples of cardiotoxic agents include dioxins, polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). The disruption of cardiac function during the process of heart morphogenesis can lead to adverse outcome pathways (AOPs) that can negatively affect fish survival at hatching as well as later life stages. Proximal impacts include cardiogenic fluid accumulation (edema) and defects of the body axis and jaw that preclude larval feeding. More subtle changes in heart development can produce permanent structural defects in the heart that reduce cardiac output and swimming performance in older fish. In recent decades, the presence of edema in fish embryos and larvae has been a very common bioindicator of cardiotoxicity. However, the different ways that edema forms in fish from different habitats (i.e., freshwater vs. marine, pelagic vs. demersal) has not been rigorously examined. Oil spills are an important source of PAHs in fish spawning areas worldwide, and research is revealing how patterns of cardiogenic edema are shaped by species-specific differences in developmental anatomy and ionoregulatory physiology. Here we review the visible evidence for circulatory disruption across nine freshwater and marine fish species, exposed to crude oils from different parts of the world. We focus on the close interconnectedness of the cardiovascular and osmoregulatory systems during early development, and corresponding implications for fish in hyperosmotic and hyposmotic habitats. Finally, we suggest there may be poorly understood adverse outcomes pathways related to osmotic gradients and water movement within embryos, the latter causing extreme shifts in tissue osmolality.
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Affiliation(s)
- John P Incardona
- Environmental and Fisheries Sciences Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Fisheries, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112 USA.
| | - Nathaniel L Scholz
- Environmental and Fisheries Sciences Division, Northwest Fisheries Science Center, National Marine Fisheries Service, NOAA Fisheries, 2725 Montlake Blvd. E., Seattle, WA 98112 USA
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