Research perspectives in the etiology of congenital anorectal malformations using data of the International Consortium on Anorectal Malformations: evidence for risk factors across different populations

Expanding the clinical spectrum of Coffin-Siris syndrome with anorectal malformations: Case report and review of the literature

Anorectal malformations (ARMs) represent a wide spectrum of congenital anomalies of the anus and rectum, of which more than half are syndromic. Their etiology is highly heterogeneous and still poorly understood. We report a 4-year-old girl who initially presented with an isolated ARM, and subsequently developed a global developmental delay as part of an ARID1B-related Coffin-Siris syndrome (CSS). A co-occurrence of ARMs and CSS in an individual by chance is unexpected since both diseases are very rare. A review of the literature enabled us to identify 10 other individuals with both CSS and ARMs. Among the ten individuals reported in this study, 8 had a variant in ARID1A, 2 in ARID1B, and 1 in SMARCA4. This more frequent than expected association between CSS and ARM indicates that some ARMs are most likely part of the CSS spectrum, especially for ARID1A-related CSS.

Clinical Presentations and Diagnostic Imaging of VACTERL Association

Background: VACTERL association consists of Vertebral, Anorectal, Cardiac, Tracheo-Esophageal, Renal, and Limb defects. The diagnosis depends on the presence of at least three of these structural abnormalities. Methods: The clinical presentation and diagnostic prenatal imaging of VACTERL association are comprehensively reviewed. Results: The most common feature is a vertebral anomaly, found in 60-80% of cases. Tracheo-esophageal fistula is seen in 50-80% of cases and renal malformations in 30% of patients. Limb defects including thumb aplasia/hypoplasia, polydactyly, and radial agenesis/hypoplasia are present in 40-50% of cases. Anorectal defects, like imperforate anus/anal atresia, are challenging to detect prenatally. Conclusion: The diagnosis of VACTERL association mostly relies on imaging techniques such as ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance. Differential diagnosis should exclude similar diseases such as CHARGE and Townes-Brocks syndromes and Fanconi anemia. New insights into genetic etiology have led to recommendations of chromosomal breakage investigation for optimal diagnosis and counseling.

Urological Impact of Epididymo-orchitis in Patients with Anorectal Malformation: An ARM-Net Consortium Study

INTRODUCTION

 To investigate the current experience of the ARM-Net Consortium in the management of epididymo-orchitis (EO) in patients with anorectal malformations (ARMs), and to identify specific risk factors and the need for urological care involvement.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

 We retrospectively collected data of EO in patients with ARM between 2015 and 2019. Data on urological aspects, ARM type, surgical approach, associated anomalies, diagnosis, and treatment of EO were collected and analyzed.

RESULTS

 Twenty-nine patients were reported by 12 centers. Twenty-six patients with EO (90%) had ARM with a rectourinary fistula. Median age at first EO was 2 years (range: 15 days-27 years). Twenty patients (69%) experienced multiple EO, and 60% of recurrences were ipsilateral. Associated urological anomalies included vesicoureteral reflux (48%), urethral anomalies (41%), neurogenic bladder (41%), and ectopic vas (10%). A positive urine culture during EO was present in 69%. EO was treated with antibiotics (90%), limiting surgical exploration to 14%. Prevention of recurrences included surgery (bulking agents 15%, vasectomy 15%, and orchiectomy 5%) and antibiotic prophylaxis (20%).

CONCLUSION

 Urologists may encounter patients with EO in ARM patients, frequently with positive urine culture. An appropriate urologic work-up for most ARM patients is necessary to identify and treat underlying risk factors. A practical scheme for the work-up is suggested for a close collaboration between pediatric surgeons and urologists.

Bowel function and associated risk factors at preschool and early childhood age in children with anorectal malformation type rectovestibular fistula: An ARM-Net consortium study

BACKGROUND

Outcome of patients operated for anorectal malformation (ARM) type rectovestibular fistula (RVF) is generally considered to be good. However, large multi-center studies are scarce, mostly describing pooled outcome of different ARM-types, in adult patients. Therefore, counseling parents concerning the bowel function at early age is challenging. Aim of this study was to evaluate bowel function of RVF-patients at preschool/early childhood age and determine risk factors for poor functional outcome.

METHODS

A multi-center cohort study was performed. Patient characteristics, associated anomalies, sacral ratio, surgical procedures, post-reconstructive complications, one-year constipation, and Bowel Function Score (BFS) at 4-7 years of follow-up were registered. Groups with below normal (BFS < 17; subgroups 'poor' ≤ 11, and 'fair' 11 < BFS < 17) and good outcome (BFS ≥ 17) were formed. Univariable analyses were performed to detect risk factors for outcome.

RESULTS

The study included 111 RVF-patients. Median BFS was 16 (range 6-20). The 'below normal' group consisted of 61 patients (55.0%). Overall, we reported soiling, fecal accidents, and constipation in 64.9%, 35.1% and 70.3%, respectively. Bowel management was performed in 23.4% of patients. Risk factors for poor outcome were tethered cord and low sacral ratio, while sacral anomalies, low sacral ratio, prior enterostomy, post-reconstructive complications, and one-year constipation were for being on bowel management.

CONCLUSIONS

Although median BFS at 4-7 year follow-up is nearly normal, the majority of patients suffers from some degree of soiling and constipation, and almost 25% needs bowel management. Several factors were associated with poor bowel function outcome and bowel management.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level III.

Delayed vs. early enteral feeding after repair of congenital recto-vestibular fistula: The effect on perineal wound healing

INTRODUCTION

congenital Recto vestibular fistula represents the commonest type of anorectal malformation in females. The treatment of this anomaly is mainly approached either through anterior or posterior sagittal ano-rectoplasty approach. Several perioperative factors may affect the outcome. One of major postoperative complications is the occurrence of wound infection. We aimed to study the effect of delayed vs. early enteral feeding on the occurrence of perineal wound infection (PWI) after repair of congenital recto vestibular fistula.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

Fifty-five infants with recto-vestibular fistula were included. They were managed by single stage anterior sagittal anorectoplasty (ASARP) at an age ≥3 months. Groups A and B included infants who started oral intake on the 6th and 2nd postoperative days respectively. Group A infants were kept on peripheral parenteral nutrition (PPN) during the fasting period.

RESULTS

Superficial wound infection occurred in three cases in group A while it developed in seven cases in group B. Deep perineal infection occurred in two and five cases in group A and group B respectively. The mean hospital stay was 8 days in group A vs. 13 days in group B when PWI developed.

CONCLUSION

Delayed enteral feeding with PPN keeps the perineal wound less contaminated with stool. This promoted proper and fast healing with lower incidence of PWI. Also, PPN compensates the catabolic effects of both surgical trauma and fasting during the postoperative period and ensures maintenance of normal levels of essential nutrients that allow for proper healing.

Investigation of the risk factors of anorectal malformations

PURPOSE

To investigate the factors that influence the occurrence of anorectal malformations (ARMs).

METHODS

From December 2018 to December 2019, 136 children treated for ARMs at the Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University were included in the case group. The control group consisted of children with intussusception or perianal abscesses. A uniform questionnaire was filled by the parents of the enrolled children.

RESULTS

The birth weight of the cases was significantly lower than that of the controls (p < .01), and children with ARMs were more likely to be complicated with single umbilical artery (SUA) (p < .001). Maternal upper respiratory tract infection (adjusted odds ratio [OR_adj ], 2.44; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.29-4.63) and urogenital infection (OR_adj , 2.67; 95% CI 1.11-6.38) during the first trimester of pregnancy, anemia during pregnancy (OR_adj , 5.69; 95% CI, 1.01-32.07), and exposure to hazardous substances 6 months before pregnancy and during the first trimester of pregnancy (OR_adj , 13.82; 95% CI, 3.86-49.35) are associated with increased risk of ARMs. Folic acid supplements (OR_adj , 0.31; 95% CI, 0.14-0.65) and multivitamin (OR_adj , 0.34; 95% CI, 0.15-0.79) had a protective effect on ARMs. Paternal drug use (OR_adj , 9.17; 95% CI, 2.19-38.49) 6 months before their wives' conception increased the risk of ARMs.

CONCLUSION

Maternal infection, anemia during pregnancy, and maternal hazardous substances exposure are possible risk factors for ARMs. Folic acid supplements and multivitamin can reduce the occurrence of ARMs. Meanwhile, paternal drug use may also be a risk factor for ARMs.

Genetic Counseling and Diagnostics in Anorectal Malformation

Anorectal malformation (ARM) is a relatively frequently occurring congenital anomaly of hindgut development with a prevalence of 1 in 3,000 live births. ARM may present as an isolated anomaly, but it can also be associated with other anomalies, sometimes as part of a recognizable syndrome. After birth, much medical attention is given to the treatment and restoring of bowel function in children with ARM. Effort should also be given to studying the etiology of the ARM in these patients. This information is important to both the medical community and the family, because it can help guide treatment and provides information on the long-term prognosis of the patient and recurrence risk in the family.In this article, we will review the current knowledge on the (genetic) etiology of (syndromic) ARM and provide guidelines for (family) history taking and clinical and genetic studies of ARM patients and their families, which is needed to study the causal factors in an ARM patient and for genetic counseling of the families.

Update on the gestational effects of maternal hyperthermia

OBJECTIVES

I plan to review the types of defects caused by gestational hyperthermia. Hyperthermia-induced malformations in animals and humans involve many organs and structures, particularly the central nervous system, as well as other defects. The type of defect is related to the timing of the hyperthermic insult, and the underlying mechanisms include cell death, membrane disruption, vascular disruption, and placental infarction.

METHODS

Review of recent epidemiologic studies (2005-2020) has confirmed an association between gestational hyperthermia and birth defects.

RESULTS

There are strong associations between neural tube defects and maternal fever, and other studies have demonstrated associations between first trimester hyperthermia and an increased risk for cardiovascular defects, oral clefts, isolated congenital ear defects, cataracts, hypospadias, renal anomalies, possibly anorectal malformations, and congenital anomalies in general, suggesting that this association between maternal hyperthermia and birth defects in humans is causal. The first prospective evaluation of maternal fever was reported in 1998, and this study confirmed findings from previous case-control studies and case series regarding the magnitude and duration of elevated maternal body temperature in relation to an increased risk for neural tube defects as well as a specific pattern of malformation.

CONCLUSIONS

The consistency of findings across these different study designs supports the causal nature of the relationship between maternal fever and specific birth defects. This review summarizes the recent human evidence documenting the gestational effects of maternal hyperthermia.

Comparison of Maternal Histories and Exposures in Children With Isolated Anorectal Malformation Versus Anorectal Malformation With Genitourinary Anomalies

Introduction

To our knowledge, there are no studies to date that have compared patients with isolated anorectal malformation (ARM) to patients with ARM and an associated genitourinary (GU) malformation despite a possible etiological difference between these two entities. We examined the differences in maternal and prenatal exposures and comorbidities between patients with isolated ARM and patients with ARM and associated GU malformations.

Materials and methods

A retrospective cohort study of children with ARM, enrolled in the Pediatric Colorectal and Pelvic Learning Consortium (PCPLC) between February 2017 and October 2019, was performed comparing those with isolated ARM to those with ARM and associated GU anomalies (GU +/- additional anomalies) as well as to those with ARM and a GU anomaly with no anomaly of any other system (GU-only). We compared the prevalence of prematurity, family history of colorectal disorders, as well as maternal and prenatal comorbidities and exposures between these two cohorts and the isolated ARM cohort.

Results

A total of 505 patients (117 with isolated ARM and 388 with ARM and associated GU anomalies) were enrolled. Of the 388 patients with ARM and associated GU anomalies, 48 had an ARM with a GU anomaly without an anomaly in any other system. There was an increased prevalence of premature births in the GU +/- additional anomalies cohort compared to the isolated ARM cohort (27 vs 14%, p=0.003). This difference was not seen in the GU-only cohort. There was no difference between the cohorts regarding prevalence of family history of ARM or maternal and prenatal comorbidities or exposures.

Conclusions

Patients with an ARM and an associated GU anomaly with or without other congenital anomalies are more likely to be born prematurely compared to patients with an isolated ARM. Parents of these children should be counseled on this increased risk.

Inter- and Intraobserver Variation in the Assessment of Preoperative Colostograms in Male Anorectal Malformations: An ARM-Net Consortium Survey

Aim: Male patients with anorectal malformations (ARM) are classified according to presence and level of the recto-urinary fistula. This is traditionally established by a preoperative high-pressure distal colostogram that may be variably interpreted by different surgeons. The aim of this study was to evaluate the inter- and intraobserver variation in the assessment by pediatric surgeons of preoperative colostograms with respect to the level of the recto-urinary fistula. Materials and Methods: Sixteen pediatric surgeons from 14 European centers belonging to the ARM-Net Consortium twice scored 130 images of distal colostograms taken in sagittal projection at a median age of 66 days of life (range: 4-1,106 days). Surgeons were asked to classify the fistula in bulbar, prostatic, bladder-neck, no fistula, and "unclear anatomy" example. Their assessments were compared with the intraoperative findings (kappa) for two scoring rounds with an interval of 6 months (intraobserver variation). Agreement among the surgeons' scores (interobserver variation) was also calculated using Krippendorff's alpha. A kappa over 0.75 is considered excellent, between 0.40 and 0.75 fair to good, and below 0.40 poor. Surgeons were asked to score the images in "poor" and "good" quality and to provide their years of experience in ARM treatment. Results: Agreement between the image-based rating of surgeons and the intraoperative findings ranges from 0.06 to 0.45 (mean 0.31). Interobserver variation is higher (Krippendorff's alpha between 0.40 and 0.45). Years of experience in ARM treatment does not seem to influence the scoring. The mean intraobserver variation between the two rounds is 0.64. Overall, the quality of the images is considered poor. Images categorized as having a good quality result in a statistically significant higher kappa (mean: 0.36 and 0.37 in the first and second round, respectively) than in the group of bad-quality images (mean: 0.25 and 0.23, respectively). Conclusions: There is poor agreement among experienced pediatric colorectal surgeons on preoperative colostograms. Techniques and analyses of images need to be improved in order to generate a homogeneous series of patients and make comparison of outcomes reliable.

The impact of perioperative care on complications and short term outcome in ARM type rectovestibular fistula: An ARM-Net consortium study

BACKGROUND

The impact of perioperative care interventions on postreconstructive complications and short-term colorectal outcome in patients with anorectal malformation (ARM) type rectovestibular fistula is unknown.

METHODS

An ARM-Net consortium multicenter retrospective cohort study was performed including 165 patients with a rectovestibular fistula. Patient characteristics, perioperative care interventions, timing of reconstruction, postreconstructive complications and the colorectal outcome at one year of follow-up were registered.

RESULTS

Overall complications were seen in 26.8% of the patients, of which 41% were regarded major. Differences in presence of enterostomy, timing of reconstruction, mechanical bowel preparation, antibiotic prophylaxis and postoperative feeding regimen had no impact on the occurrence of overall complications. However, mechanical bowel preparation, antibiotic prophylaxis ≥48 h and postoperative nil by mouth showed a significant reduction in major complications. The lowest rate of major complications was found in the group having these three interventions combined (5.9%). Multivariate analyses did not show independent significant results of any of the perioperative care interventions owing to center-specific combinations. At one year follow-up, half of the patients experienced constipation and this was significantly higher among those with preoperative mechanical bowel preparation.

CONCLUSIONS

Differences in perioperative care interventions do not seem to impact the incidence of overall complications in a large cohort of European rectovestibular fistula-patients. Mechanical bowel preparation, antibiotic prophylaxis ≥48 h, and postoperative nil by mouth showed the least major complications. Independency could not be established owing to center-specific combinations of interventions.

TYPE OF STUDY

Treatment study.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III.

Delayed access to care and unmet burden of pediatric surgical disease in resource-constrained African countries

BACKGROUND

The purpose of this study was to estimate the unmet burden of surgically correctable congenital anomalies in African low- and middle-income countries (LMICs).

METHODS

We conducted a chart review of children operated for cryptorchidism, isolated cleft lip, hypospadias, bladder exstrophy and anorectal malformation at an Ethiopian referral hospital between January 2012 and July 2016 and a scoping review of the literature describing the management of congenital anomalies in African LMICs. Procedure numbers and age at surgery were collected to estimate mean surgical delays by country and extrapolate surgical backlog. The unmet surgical need was derived from incidence-based disease estimates, established disability weights, and actual surgical volumes.

RESULTS

The chart review yielded 210 procedures in 207 patients from Ethiopia. The scoping review generated 42 data sets, extracted from 36 publications, encompassing: Benin, Egypt, Ghana, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Nigeria, Madagascar, Malawi, Togo, Uganda, Zambia, and Zimbabwe. The largest national surgical backlog was noted in Nigeria for cryptorchidism (209,260 cases) and cleft lip (4154 cases), and Ethiopia for hypospadias (20,188 cases), bladder exstrophy (575 cases) and anorectal malformation (1349 cases).

CONCLUSION

These data support the need for upscaling pediatric surgical capacity in LMICs to address the significant surgical delay, surgical backlog, and unmet prevalent need.

TYPE OF STUDY

Retrospective study and review article LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: III.

Overview of Anorectal Malformations in Africa

Anorectal malformation is one of the most common structural congenital malformations treated by pediatric surgeons globally. The outcome of care is largely dependent on the spectrum, clinical features, associated malformations, expertise of the surgeons, and available perioperative facilities. Africa has a large burden of unmet surgical needs in children, and as in other low resource settings, local pediatric surgeons are faced with different and challenging clinical scenarios, hence, adopt various measures to enable children with surgically correctable congenital malformations to survive. There are increasing collaborations between local surgeons and experts in other continents, which often involves surgeons traveling to Africa on missions or well-structured partnerships. It is highly beneficial for the physician who is interested in global-surgery to understand the terrain in low resource settings and prepare for possible changes in management plan. This review highlights the epidemiology, clinical presentation, treatment, and outcome of care of children with anorectal malformations in Africa and provides options adopted by pediatric surgeons working with limited resources.

Outcomes of kidney transplants in pediatric patients with the vertebral defects, anal atresia, cardiac defects, tracheoesophageal fistula, renal anomalies, limb abnormalities association

In this single-center retrospective study, we analyzed kidney transplant outcomes in nine pediatric patients with VACTERL [vertebral defects, anal atresia, cardiac defects, tracheoesophageal fistula, renal anomalies, limb abnormalities] association-making this the largest study of its kind. Of 743 pediatric kidney transplant recipients at our center (1980-2017), nine had documented diagnoses of VACTERL association. All nine had congenital anorectal malformations and renal anomalies, five had vertebral defects, and one had a bifid thumb and tracheoesophageal fistula. Renal anomalies included dysplasia (n = 6), aplasia (n = 3), and horseshoe kidney (n = 2). Congenital lower urinary tract anomalies included neurogenic bladder (n = 6), obstructive uropathy (n = 4), anovesicular fistula (n = 1), rectourethral fistula (n = 1), and posterior urethral valves (n = 1). Age at transplant ranged from 1.2 to 15 years (mean, 7.3; standard deviation [SD], 5.5); 6 (67%) were male, and 3 (33%) were female; 6 (67%) had a living related donor, and 3 (33%) had a deceased donor. The overall graft survival rate was 78% (range, 1.5 to 25.2 years; mean, 10.5; SD, 8.9). One month post-transplant, one recipient died with a functioning graft. At 3.7 years post-transplant, one graft failed because of recurrent pyelonephritis. Post-transplant urologic complications included pyelonephritis (n = 6), vesicoureteral reflux (n = 5), and graft hydronephrosis (n = 4). We conclude that pediatric patients with VACTERL association can be safely transplanted-careful patient selection with vigilance and intervention for pre- and post-transplant urologic complications is essential.

Associated anomalies in cases with anorectal anomalies

Anorectal anomalies (ARA) are common congenital anomalies. The etiology of ARA is unclear and its pathogenesis is controversial. Cases with ARA often have other non-ARA-associated congenital anomalies. The purpose of this study was to assess the prevalence and the types of these associated anomalies in a defined population. The associated anomalies in cases with ARA were collected in all live births, stillbirths, and terminations of pregnancy during 29 years in 387,067 consecutive births in the area covered by our population-based registry of congenital malformations. Of the 202 cases with ARA, representing a prevalence of 5.21 per 10,000, 100 (49.5%) had associated anomalies. There were 7 (3.3%) cases with chromosomal abnormalities, and 31 (15.3%) nonchromosomal recognized dysmorphic conditions, including 17 cases with Vertebral defects, Anal atresia, Cardiac septal defects, esophageal atresia or TracheoEsophageal fistula, Renal anomalies and radial Limb defects association. Sixty two (30.7%) of the cases had nonsyndromic multiple congenital anomalies (MCA). Anomalies in the urogenital, the musculoskeletal, the cardiovascular, the digestive, and the central nervous systems were the most common other anomalies in the cases with MCA. The anomalies associated with ARA could be classified into a recognizable malformation syndrome or pattern in 38 out of the 100 cases (38%) with associated anomalies. This study included special strengths: each affected child was examined by a geneticist, all elective terminations were ascertained, and the surveillance for anomalies was continued until 2 years of age. In conclusion, the overall prevalence of associated anomalies, which was close to one in two cases, emphasizes the need for a routine screening for other anomalies in cases with ARA.

Maternal risk factors and perinatal characteristics of anorectal malformations

PURPOSE

The aim of this study was to assess maternal risk factors and perinatal characteristics of patients with anorectal malformations (ARM) in Sweden.

METHODS

Population-based case-control study including all patients with ARM born in Sweden 1973-2014. Patients were identified from the Swedish National Patient Register, and data on possible maternal risk factors and perinatal characteristics were obtained from the Swedish Medical Birth Register. The association between study variables and ARM was analyzed using conditional logistic regression.

RESULTS

1167 patients and 5835 controls were analyzed. Patients with ARM were more often prematurely born (<35 weeks: OR 4.81 95% CI 3.42-6.75, 35-36 weeks OR 2.96 95% CI 2.13-4.11) or small for gestational age (SGA) (OR 3.82 95% CI 2.66-5.50). Maternal BMI ≥30 was associated with an increased risk for ARM (OR 1.42; 95% CI 1.08-1.86). Maternal smoking ≥10 cigarettes daily was associated with ARM only in patients without associated malformations (OR 1.67 95% CI 1.08-2.58).

CONCLUSIONS

Maternal obesity is a possible risk factor for ARM. Prematurity and SGA was more common among ARM patients. Maternal smoking may be a risk factor of ARM in patients without associated malformations.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

III.

Maternal drug use and the risk of anorectal malformations: systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Origin of anorectal malformations (ARM) are considered multifactorial. Several genetic and non-genetic risk factors are discussed in literature. Maternal periconceptional medical drug use as possible risk factor, however, has not been reviewed systematically.

Methods

Studies published between 1977 and April 2017 were reviewed through systematic search in PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge and Scopus databases. Furthermore, related and cross-referencing publications were reviewed. Pooled odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) were determined to quantify associations of maternal periconceptional use of folic acid, multivitamins, anti-asthma medication (separated in any anti-asthma medication, inhaled corticosteroids and salbutamol), thyroid hormone supplements, psychiatric drugs (separated in antidepressants, any selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors [SSRI], sertraline, citalopram, fluoxetine, paroxetine, hypnotics and benzodiazepine) and aspirin with ARM using meta-analyses.

Results

Thirty-seven studies that reported on the association between maternal periconceptional drug intake and infants born with ARM were included in this review. These were conducted in the United States of America (n = 14), Sweden (n = 6), Hungary (n = 5), Germany (n = 3), the Netherlands (n = 3), Denmark (n = 2), France (n = 2), Norway (n = 1) and the UK (n = 1). However, only few of these studies reported on the same risk factors. Studies were heterogeneous with respect to case numbers, period ingestion of medical drug use, control selection and adjustment for covariates. Consistently increased risks were observed for any anti-asthma medication, and hypnotics and benzodiazepine, but not for folic acid, multivitamins, inhaled corticosteroids, salbutamol, thyroid hormone supplements, antidepressants, any SSRI, sertraline, citalopram, fluoxetine, paroxetine and aspirin. In meta-analyses, pooled odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for any anti-asthma medication, and hypnotics and benzodiazepine were 1.64 (1.22–2.21), and 2.43 (1.03–5.73), respectively.

Conclusion

Evidence on maternal drug use before conception and during pregnancy as risk factor for ARM from epidemiological studies is still very limited. Nevertheless, the few available studies indicate any anti-asthma medication, and hypnotics and benzodiazepine to be associated with increased risks. Further, ideally large-scale multicenter and register-based studies are needed to clarify the role of maternal drug intake for the development of ARM.

Maternal report of fever from cold or flu during early pregnancy and the risk for noncardiac birth defects, National Birth Defects Prevention Study, 1997-2011

BACKGROUND

As maternal fever affects approximately 6-8% of early pregnancies, it is important to expand upon previous observations of an association between maternal fever and birth defects.

METHODS

We analyzed data from the National Birth Defects Prevention Study, a multistate, case-control study of major structural birth defects. Telephone interviews were completed by mothers of cases (n = 17,162) and controls (n = 10,127). Using multivariable logistic regression, we assessed the association between maternal self-report of cold or flu with fever and cold or flu without fever during early pregnancy and 30 categories of non-cardiac birth defects.

RESULTS

Maternal report of cold or flu with fever was significantly associated with 8 birth defects (anencephaly, spina bifida, encephalocele, cleft lip with or without cleft palate, colonic atresia/stenosis, bilateral renal agenesis/hypoplasia, limb reduction defects, and gastroschisis) with elevated adjusted odds ratios ranging from 1.2 to 3.7. Maternal report of cold or flu without fever was not associated with any of the birth defects studied.

CONCLUSIONS

This study adds to the evidence that maternal fever during early pregnancy is associated with an increased risk for selected birth defects. Elevated associations were limited to mothers who reported a fever, suggesting that it is fever that contributes to the excess risk rather than illnesses associated with it. However, fever may also serve as a marker for more severe infections.

Whole exome sequencing of sporadic patients with Currarino Syndrome: A report of three trios

Currarino Syndrome is a rare congenital malformation syndrome described as a triad of anorectal, sacral and presacral anomalies. Currarino Syndrome is reported to be both familial and sporadic. Familial CS is today known as an autosomal dominant disorder caused by mutations in the transcription factor MNX1. The aim of this study was to look for genetic causes of Currarino Syndrome in sporadic patients after ruling out other causes, like chromosome aberrations, disease-causing variants in possible MNX1 cooperating transcription factors and aberrant methylation in the promoter of the MNX1 gene. The hypothesis was that MNX1 was affected through interactions with other transcription factors or through other regulatory elements and thereby possibly leading to abnormal function of the gene. We performed whole exome sequencing with an additional 6Mb custom made region on chromosome 7 (GRCh37/hg19, chr7:153.138.664-159.138.663) to detect regulatory elements in non-coding regions around the MNX1 gene. We did not find any variants in genes of interest shared between the patients. However, after analyzing the whole exome sequencing data with Filtus, the in-house SNV filtration program, we did find some interesting variants in possibly relevant genes that could be explaining these patients` phenotypes. The most promising genes were ETV3L, ARID5A and NCAPD3. To our knowledge this is the first report of whole exome sequencing in sporadic CS patients.

Previous miscarriages and GLI2 are associated with anorectal malformations in offspring

STUDY QUESTION

Are anorectal malformations (ARMs) associated with previous miscarriages or single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in the Bone Morphogenetic Protein 4 (BMP4) and GLI family zinc finger 2 (GLI2) genes?

SUMMARY ANSWER

The SNP rs3738880 in GLI2 and miscarriages were associated with ARM, especially in patients with multiple congenital anomalies (MCA).

WHAT IS KNOWN ALREADY

ARM are one of the most common birth defects of the gastrointestinal tract. The etiology is likely to be multifactorial, involving both environmental and genetic factors. SNPs in BMP4 and GLI2 genes were associated with ARM in non-Caucasian populations. During a patient information day, several mothers of ARM patients reported their concerns about previous miscarriages.

STUDY DESIGN, SIZE, DURATION

A case-control study was performed among 427 ARM patients and 663 population-based controls.

PARTICIPANTS/MATERIALS, SETTING, METHODS

We examined the associations of ARM with SNPs in GLI2 and BMP4 using DNA samples of the children and associations with previous miscarriages using parental questionnaires. In addition, gene-gene and gene-environment interaction analyses were performed.

MAIN RESULTS AND THE ROLE OF CHANCE

The SNP rs3738880 in GLI2 was associated with ARM, especially in patients with MCA (homozygous GG-genotype: odds ratio (OR): 2.1; 95% CI: 1.2, 3.7). We identified previous miscarriages as a new risk factor for ARM, especially when occurring in the pregnancy directly preceding the index pregnancy and in patients with MCA (OR: 2.1; 95% CI: 1.3, 3.5). No association with rs17563 in BMP4, nor gene-gene or gene-environment interactions were found.

LIMITATIONS, REASONS FOR CAUTION

The possibility of recall errors for previous miscarriage, but we expect these errors to be limited, as a miscarriage is a major life event. In addition, potential misclassification regarding miscarriages and stillbirth, but sensitivity analyses showed that this did not influence our results.

WIDER IMPLICATIONS OF THE FINDINGS

This study showed associations of ARM with rs3738880 in GLI2 and with previous miscarriages. Both associations were stronger in patients with MCA, showing the importance of stratifying the analyses by patients with isolated ARM or MCA.

STUDY FUNDING/COMPETING INTERESTS

This study was funded by the Radboudumc. The authors have no conflict of interest to disclose.

Birth outcomes of patients with isolated anorectal malformations: A population-based case-control study

In most patients affected by isolated anorectal malformation (IARM) the etiology is largely unknown. Thus, the aim of our project was to analyze possible risk factors for IARM. In the first step, birth outcomes of cases with IARM were analyzed on the basis of maternal socio-demographic variables, and these data are presented in this paper. Gestational age at delivery, birthweight, preterm birth, low birthweight and small for gestational age of cases with IARM were evaluated in the function of maternal age, birth/pregnancy order, marital and employment status of mothers in the population-based large dataset of the Hungarian Case-Control Surveillance of Congenital Abnormalities, 1980-1996. The study samples included 231 live-born cases with IARM, 361 matched and 38 151 population controls without any defect. IARMs are more frequent in males, twins and newborn infants with low birthweight and small-for-gestational-age, the latter being the consequence of intrauterine growth restriction. In addition, mothers of cases were younger but with higher birth order, and had lower socio-economic status. These maternal variables are characteristic for the gypsy population in Hungary. The higher proportion of gypsy women among the mothers of cases with IARM was confirmed during the home visits of the study. Male sex and intrauterine growth restriction of cases, in addition to low socioeconomic status and gypsy origin of mothers may have a role in the risk of IARMs.

Parental risk factors of anorectal malformations: Analysis with a regional population-based control group

BACKGROUND

Adequate evidence on environmental risk factors for anorectal malformations (ARMs) is very limited. We assessed maternal body weight and several prenatal exposures of the parents to tobacco, pregestational diabetes, chronic cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, periconceptional folic acid and multivitamin intake.

METHODS

Data from the German Network for Congenital Uro-REctal malformations (CURE-Net) were compared with data from the Malformation Monitoring Centre Saxony-Anhalt of the Otto-von-Guericke University in Magdeburg, Germany. Controls were matched to cases by gender and birth year of the child. Crude and adjusted odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) were calculated for potential risk factors using multivariable logistic regression.

RESULTS

In total, 158 ARM patients and 474 healthy infants born between 1993 and 2008 in Germany were included. Maternal age at birth of ARM cases and birth plurality were significantly higher and gestational age and weight significantly lower compared with controls (p < 0.0001). We observed significantly increased risks for ARMs associated with maternal smoking before conception and the first trimester of pregnancy (odds ratio = 2.23, 95% confidence interval 1.04-4.79, p = 0.039) and maternal chronic respiratory diseases (odds ratio = 29.25, 95% confidence interval 8.22-104.14, p < 0.0001). No statistically significant increased risk or protective effect was found for the other investigated factors.

CONCLUSION

This study suggests an association between the occurrence of ARMs in the offspring and periconceptional maternal smoking as well as maternal chronic respiratory diseases. In addition, there might be a sign of an association for maternal diabetes, although not statistically significant. It can be assumed that the power is far too low to provide reliable estimates.

Maternal factors in the origin of isolated anorectal malformations - a population-based case-control study

OBJECTIVE

In most patients affected by isolated anorectal malformation (IARM), the etiology is unknown. Thus, the aim of this study was to analyze the possible role of maternal risk factors in the origin of IARM.

METHODS

The study samples included 231 cases with IARM, 361 matched and 38 151 population controls without any defect in the population-based large dataset of the Hungarian Case-Control Surveillance of Congenital Abnormalities, 1980-1996. Cases with IARM were evaluated in the function of maternal diseases and related drug use.

RESULTS

The findings of this case-control study suggested that cases with IARM have an obvious male excess. The mothers of cases with IARM had a lower incidence of severe nausea and vomiting in pregnancy and a higher incidence of acute infectious diseases in the urinary tract.

CONCLUSIONS

Lack of nausea and vomiting in pregnancy and the higher incidence of urinary tract infections may have a role in the development of IARM.

Genetic and nongenetic etiology of nonsyndromic anorectal malformations: a systematic review

Congenital anorectal malformations (ARMs) are one of the most frequently observed birth defects of the digestive system. However, their etiology remains elusive. Therefore, we aim to summarize and critically appraise all existing literature on the genetic and nongenetic etiology of nonsyndromic ARM and to conclude with unifying hypotheses and directions for future research. A structured literature search on English language human studies was conducted in PubMed and Embase up to October 1, 2013, resulting in 112 included articles. Research on the identification of genes underlying nonsyndromic ARM is remarkably scarce. Most studies were focused on screening of candidate genes for mutations or single-nucleotide polymorphisms, which did not yield any substantial evidence. Nongenetic factors fairly consistently found to be associated with ARM are assisted reproductive techniques, multiple pregnancy, preterm delivery, low birth weight, maternal overweight or obesity, and preexisting diabetes. This review provides indications for the involvement of both genes and nongenetic risk factors in the etiology of ARM. In future studies, large cohorts of patients with ARM from national and international collaborations are needed to acquire new hypotheses and knowledge through hypothesis-generating approaches. Challenges for future studies may also lie in the investigation of gene-gene and gene-environment interactions.

Comparison in the incidence of anorectal malformations between a first- and third-world referral center

PURPOSE

Aim of study was to evaluate the differences in incidence and presentation of anorectal malformations (ARMs) between selected Pediatric Surgery Divisions in the Republic of South Africa (ZAR) and Italy.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study involved analysis of clinical records of patients with ARM born between 2005 and 2012. Type of ARM, maternal age, birth weight, gestational age, presence of associated anomalies and delayed diagnosis were analyzed.

RESULTS

335 patients were included in this study. Of note, statistically significant differences between the African and European patient groups were observed in a male predominance in the ZAR patient population. In addition, female recto-perineal fistulas were diagnosed in significantly more Italian patients than in ZAR. Furthermore, a more advanced maternal age and a lower gestational age was noted in the European cohort with a minimal delay in initial diagnosis as opposed to the African counterpart. Both centers reported recto-perineal fistula as the most common malformation in male patients.

CONCLUSION

With the exception of perineal fistulas in females, the incidence of specific subtypes of ARMs was similar in the two groups. This may be of importance when extrapolating European study conclusion to the South African setting.

Analysis of renal anomalies in VACTERL association

BACKGROUND

VACTERL association refers to a combination of congenital anomalies that can include: vertebral anomalies, anal atresia, cardiac malformations, tracheo-esophageal fistula with esophageal atresia, renal anomalies (typically structural renal anomalies), and limb anomalies.

METHODS

We conducted a description of a case series to characterize renal findings in a cohort of patients with VACTERL association. Out of the overall cohort, 48 patients (with at least three component features of VACTERL and who had abdominal ultrasound performed) met criteria for analysis. Four other patients were additionally analyzed separately, with the hypothesis that subtle renal system anomalies may occur in patients who would not otherwise meet criteria for VACTERL association.

RESULTS

Thirty-three (69%) of the 48 patients had a clinical manifestation affecting the renal system. The most common renal manifestation (RM) was vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) in addition to a structural defect (present in 27%), followed by unilateral renal agenesis (24%), and then dysplastic/multicystic kidneys or duplicated collected system (18% for each). Twenty-two (88%) of the 25 patients with a structural RM had an associated anorectal malformation. Individuals with either isolated lower anatomic anomalies, or both upper and lower anatomic anomalies were not statistically more likely to have a structural renal defect than those with isolated upper anatomic anomalies (p = 0.22, p = 0.284, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Given the high prevalence of isolated VUR in our cohort, we recommend a screening VCUG or other imaging modality be obtained to evaluate for VUR if initial renal ultrasound shows evidence of obstruction or renal scarring, as well as ongoing evaluation of renal health.

Hypermethylation of SHH in the pathogenesis of congenital anorectal malformations

OBJECTIVE

This study sought to examine promoter methylation and expression of the identified sonic hedgehog (SHH) gene in terminal rectal tissues of children with congenital anorectal malformations (ARMs).

METHODS

Tissue samples from the terminal rectum of pediatric patients with ARMs (five cases each of high and intermediate malformation - two cases of rectovesical fistula, two cases of rectourethral prostatic fistula, one case of cloaca with >3cm common channel, four cases of rectourethral bulbar fistula and one case of imperforate anus without fistula, respectively, and ten cases of low malformation - five cases of perineal fistula and five cases of vestibular fistula, respectively), and patients with non-gastrointestinal tract malformation (six cases, anal fistula) were collected and divided into three groups: high-intermediate ARM (ARMhi-int), low ARM (ARMlo), and control (Cont.). Real-time RT-PCR was used to detect mRNA expression levels of the verified differentially methylated gene SHH, and bisulfite genomic sequencing was performed to evaluate DNA methylation in the SHH promoter region.

RESULTS

The average methylation levels of the SHH promoter were significantly higher in ARMhi-int (0.850±0.030, P=0.0036) and ARMlo (0.540±0.053, P=0.0087) groups than in Cont. group (0.280±0.032). SHH mRNA expression levels were lower in ARMhi-int (0.340±0.015, P=0.0065) and ARMlo (0.530±0.042, P=0.0156) groups than in Cont. group (0.870±0.046). The average methylation levels of the SHH promoter were higher in ARMhi-int group than in ARMlo group (0.850±0.030 vs. 0.540±0.053, P=0.0095), while SHH expression was significantly reduced in ARMhi-int group compared to ARMlo group (0.340±0.15 vs. 0.530±0.042, P=0.0252). The methylation levels of the SHH promoter in ARMhi-int group were negatively correlated with SHH gene expression (r=-0.89, P<0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

The SHH gene, which plays a major role in the development of the anorectum and enteric nervous system, is hypermethylated at its promoter, and this is correlated with low levels of SHH gene expression. This epigenetic modification may therefore be responsible for the observed changes in SHH expression, which could in turn underlie the pathogenesis of congenital ARMs.

Heterozygous FGF8 mutations in patients presenting cryptorchidism and multiple VATER/VACTERL features without limb anomalies

BACKGROUND

The acronym VATER/VACTERL association describes the combination of at least three of the following cardinal features: vertebral defects, anorectal malformations, cardiac defects, tracheoesophageal fistula with or without esophageal atresia, renal malformations, and limb defects. Although fibroblast growth factor-8 (FGF8) mutations have mainly found in patients with Kallmann syndrome, mice with a hypomorphic Fgf8 allele or complete gene invalidation display, aside from gonadotropin-releasing hormone deficiency, parts or even the entire spectrum of human VATER/VACTERL association.

METHODS

We performed FGF8 gene analysis in 49 patients with VATER/VACTERL association and 27 patients presenting with a VATER/VACTERL-like phenotype (two cardinal features).

RESULTS

We identified two heterozygous FGF8 mutations in patients displaying either VATER/VACTERL association (p.Gly29_Arg34dup) or a VATER/VACTERL-like phenotype (p.Pro26Leu) without limb anomalies. Whereas the duplication mutation has not been reported before, p.Pro26Leu was once observed in a Kallmann syndrome patient. Both our patients had additional bilateral cryptorchidism, a key phenotypic feature in males with FGF8 associated Kallmann syndrome. Each mutation was paternally inherited. Besides delayed puberty in both and additional unilateral cryptorchidism in one of the fathers, they were otherwise healthy. Serum hormone levels downstream the gonadotropin-releasing hormone in both patients and their fathers were within normal range.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest FGF8 mutations to contribute to the formation of the VATER/VACTERL association. Further studies are needed to support this observation.

Analysis of cardiac anomalies in VACTERL association

BACKGROUND

Congenital heart disease (CHD) is estimated to affect between 3 and 5% of all newborns. Extra-cardiac malformations are observed in 7 to 50% of patients with CHD. One relatively well-known association that can occur in the context of CHD is VACTERL. Controversy still remains regarding the definition of VATER association and its expansion to VACTERL, the appropriate diagnostic criteria and the overall incidence.

METHODS

We conducted a description of a case series to characterize the cardiac findings present in a cohort of patients meeting the criteria for VACTERL association.

RESULTS

Forty-six of 220 were eligible for inclusion into the study, 67% (31 of 46) had CHD. The most common CHD was ventricular septal defect, present in 18 of 31 patients (58%). There was no statistically significant association between CHD severity and the presence or absence of other VACTERL component features, specifically anorectal malformation (p = 0.18) or tracheo-esophageal fistula (p = 0.72). CHD presence also did not correlate with the presence of tracheo-esophageal fistula or anorectal malformation.

CONCLUSION

Although this study does not, by design, provide further evidence toward the questions of whether CHD is a defining feature of VACTERL association, the frequency of CHD in our cohort does lend support to it being an important medical consideration in patients with VACTERL association. Based on our experience, we strongly recommend a screening echocardiogram to evaluate for CHD in individuals with a potential diagnosis of VACTERL association.

Systematic review and meta-analyses: fever in pregnancy and health impacts in the offspring

BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVE

Fever during pregnancy has been suspected to harm the developing fetus. However, until now, no systematic analysis of the available evidence has been undertaken to assess the impact of maternal fever on health outcomes in the child. The goal of this study was to systematically review evidence from epidemiologic studies on adverse health outcomes of the offspring in relation to exposure to maternal fever during pregnancy.

METHODS

Systematic searches in PubMed, Web of Science, and the Cochrane Library were performed by using Medical Subject Headings, Boolean operators, and truncation, and references of references were reviewed. Cohort and case-control studies addressing health outcomes of prenatal fever exposure in humans were eligible for inclusion. Studies with no direct reference to fever, studies in selected populations (eg, preterm births), and studies published before 1990 were excluded.

RESULTS

The available literature supported an increased risk of adverse offspring health in association with fever during pregnancy. The strongest evidence was available for neural tube defects, congenital heart defects, and oral clefts, in which meta-analyses suggested between a 1.5- and nearly 3-fold increased risk with fever exposure in the first trimester. We did not find strong evidence of a dose-response relationship, but there was some evidence that antipyretic medications may have a protective effect when used in relation to febrile episodes.

CONCLUSIONS

We found substantial evidence to support the contention that maternal fever during pregnancy may negatively affect offspring health. The harmful effects seemed to cover both short- and longer-term health outcomes; however, for several outcomes, the evidence was insufficient to judge any association.

First results of a European multi-center registry of patients with anorectal malformations

BACKGROUND

The European consortium on anorectal malformations (ARM-NET) was established to improve the health care of patients and to identify genetic and environmental risk factors. The aim of the present study was to present the first results on clinical data of a large European cohort of ARM patients based on our registry.

METHODS

In 2010, the registry was established including patient characteristics and data on diagnosis, surgical therapy, and outcome regarding complications. Patients born between 2007 and 2012 were retrospectively added. A descriptive analysis of this cohort was performed.

RESULTS

Two hundred and three ARM patients were included. Syndromes or chromosomal abnormalities were present in 9%. Perineal fistulas were seen most in boys (42%) and girls (29%). Rare forms of ARM were found in 4% of the male and in 14% of the female patients. Forty-five percent of the patients had additional urogenital abnormalities. However, 32% of the patients were never screened for bladder abnormalities. Eight percent were never screened for renal malformations. In the majority of patients (79%), a PSARP was performed for the definitive reconstruction.

CONCLUSION

This collaborative effort provides a representative basis to estimate incidence of ARM types, to discuss differences and similarities in treatment, and health consequences throughout Europe.

Association of Hirschsprung's disease and anorectal malformation: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The association of Hirschsprung's disease (HD) and anorectal malformation (ARM) is rare. The exact incidence of this association is not known but HD coexisting with ARM has been reported in 2.3 to 3.4% of ARM cases. Most of the reported cases in the literature have been single case reports. The aim of this systematic review was to determine the incidence of HD associated with ARM and its relationship to other syndromes.

METHODS

A systematic review of the literature was performed for the keywords "association of Hirschsprung's disease and anorectal malformation", "aganglionosis and anorectal malformation" as well as "congenital megacolon and anorectal malformation". Resulting publications were reviewed for epidemiology, operative treatment and morbidity. Reference lists were screened for additional cases.

RESULTS

A total of 38 articles reported 90 cases of HD coexisting with ARM from 1952 to 2013. Twenty eight articles reported 40 single case reports of this association. Ten articles reported 50 cases of HD in case series of 2,465 ARM patients, resulting in an incidence of 2% of this association. Gender was reported in 63 cases, with 30 males (48%) and 33 females (52%). Associated syndromes were reported in 23 patients: Currarino syndrome in 11, Down syndrome in 8, Cat eye syndrome in 3 and Pallister-Hall syndrome in one case. Extent of aganglionosis was reported in 49 cases and included classical rectosigmoid disease in 36, long segment aganglionosis in 5, total colonic aganglionosis in 7 and total intestinal aganglionosis in one patient. In 35% of the patients stoma was created in the aganglionotic region and failed to work. There was a median delay of 8 months for the diagnosis of HD from initial diagnosis of ARM. Various surgical techniques were employed for the pull-through operation for HD.

CONCLUSION

The review confirms that the recognition of HD is often delayed because of the initial diagnosis of ARM and the fact that the dysfunctional colostomy is usually proximal to the affected aganglionotic bowel. There is a high incidence of associated syndromes when HD coexists with ARM.

Associations of anorectal malformations and related syndromes

Anorectal malformations (ARMs) represent a complex group of congenital anomalies resulting from abnormal development of the hindgut, allantois and Mullerian duct resulting in complete or partial urorectal septal malformations. There is a wide variety of phenotypic expression, ranging from mild anorectal to very complex severe ARM with >75 % having other associated malformations. 50 % of cases are syndromic although many may have other associated anomalies. This suggests a genetic link but the genetics of ARM are highly complex with a number of candidate genes being identified. Many can be classified as "field defects" as a result of a complex set of genetic interactions. Patients with associated malformations can be classified into those with multiple congenital anomalies (non-syndromic), those with chromosomal abnormalities and those with non-chromosomal syndromic associations, also, those with non-chromosomal syndromes and the influence of environmental factors (e.g. drugs in pregnancy). Although much is not known about the aetiology of ARM, the weight of evidence points to genetic factors as major causes for the condition. In this review, we look at the chromosomal and genetic associations and their underlying signalling pathways, to obtain a better understanding of the pathogenetic mechanisms involved in developing ARM. The spectrum of ARM phenotypic expression probably results from involvement and crosstalk between a number of critical signalling systems involved in development of this region. As a result, it may be expressed as a "field developmental defect" with many associated abnormalities. The role of environmental factors in the development of ARM is probably less.

Anorectal malformations and pregnancy-related disorders: a registry-based case-control study in 17 European regions

OBJECTIVE

To identify pregnancy-related risk factors for different manifestations of congenital anorectal malformations (ARMs).

DESIGN

A population-based case-control study.

SETTING

Seventeen EUROCAT (European Surveillance of Congenital Anomalies) registries, 1980-2008.

POPULATION

The study population consisted of 1417 cases with ARM, including 648 cases of isolated ARM, 601 cases of ARM with additional congenital anomalies, and 168 cases of ARM-VACTERL (vertebral, anal, cardiac, tracheo-esophageal, renal, and limb defects), along with 13 371 controls with recognised syndromes or chromosomal abnormalities.

METHODS

Multiple logistic regression analyses were used to calculate adjusted odds ratios (ORs) for potential risk factors for ARM, such as fertility treatment, multiple pregnancy, primiparity, maternal illnesses during pregnancy, and pregnancy-related complications.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

Adjusted ORs for pregnancy-related risk factors for ARM.

RESULTS

The ARM cases were more likely to be firstborn than the controls (OR 1.6, 95% CI 1.4-1.8). Fertility treatment and being one of twins or triplets seemed to increase the risk of ARM in cases with additional congenital anomalies or VACTERL (ORs ranging from 1.6 to 2.5). Maternal fever during pregnancy and pre-eclampsia were only associated with ARM when additional congenital anomalies were present (OR 3.9, 95% CI 1.3-11.6; OR 3.4, 95% CI 1.6-7.1, respectively), whereas maternal epilepsy during pregnancy resulted in a five-fold elevated risk of all manifestations of ARM (OR 5.1, 95% CI 1.7-15.6).

CONCLUSIONS

This large European study identified maternal epilepsy, fertility treatment, multiple pregnancy, primiparity, pre-eclampsia, and maternal fever during pregnancy as potential risk factors primarily for complex manifestations of ARM with additional congenital anomalies and VACTERL.

Mitochondrial Factors and VACTERL Association-Related Congenital Malformations

VACTERL/VATER association is a group of congenital malformations characterized by at least 3 of the following findings: vertebral defects, anal atresia, cardiac defects, tracheo-esophageal fistula, renal anomalies, and limb abnormalities. To date, no unifying etiology for VACTERL/VATER association has been established, and there is strong evidence for causal heterogeneity. VACTERL/VATER association has many overlapping characteristics with other congenital disorders that involve multiple malformations. In addition to these other conditions, some of which have known molecular causes, certain aspects of VACTERL/VATER association have similarities with the manifestations of disorders caused by mitochondrial dysfunction. Mitochondrial dysfunction can result from a number of distinct causes and can clinically manifest in diverse presentations; accurate diagnosis can be challenging. Case reports of individuals with VACTERL association and confirmed mitochondrial dysfunction allude to the possibility of mitochondrial involvement in the pathogenesis of VACTERL/VATER association. Further, there is biological plausibility involving mitochondrial dysfunction as a possible etiology related to a diverse group of congenital malformations, including those seen in at least a subset of individuals with VACTERL association.

VATER/VACTERL association: identification of seven new twin pairs, a systematic review of the literature, and a classical twin analysis

The VATER/VACTERL association is typically defined by the presence of at least three of the following congenital malformations: vertebral anomalies, anal atresia, cardiac malformations, tracheo-esophageal fistula, renal anomalies, and limb abnormalities. The identification of 14 twin pairs with an initial diagnosis of VATER/VACTERL association at our clinical centers led to the performance of a classical twin study. This involved a thorough evaluation of these 14 twin pairs and a further 55 twin pairs identified from a systematic review of the literature. The zygosity, concordance, and malformation status of all 69 twin pairs were evaluated. Twenty-four twin pairs fulfilled the criteria for inclusion in a comparison of the concordance rates between monozygous (MZ) and dizygous (DZ) twin pairs. The pairwise concordance rates were 15% [95% confidence interval (CI) 4-42%] for MZ and 18% (95% CI 5-48%) for DZ twin pairs (P=0.53). The probandwise concordance rates were 27% (95% CI 11-52%) for MZ and 31% (95% CI 13-58%) for DZ twin pairs (P=0.40). Although based on a limited number of twin pairs, the findings of the present study are consistent with the low number of familial cases reported to date, and suggest that the role of inherited genetic factors in the majority of VATER/VACTERL cases is limited.

Anomalies associated with anorectal malformations according to the Krickenbeck anatomic classification

PURPOSE

We evaluated the incidence of congenital anomalies associated with anorectal malformations (ARMs) in relation to the anatomic type of ARM as defined by the Krickenbeck classification.

METHODS

We reviewed 99 children with ARM in our institution from 2002 to 2011. Data were collected on patient demographics, type of ARM, and associated congenital anomalies, which were categorized according to organ systems. Statistical analysis was performed for comparison between groups using 'perineal fistula' as the base group.

RESULTS

There were 62 (63%) male patients. The majority had perineal fistulas (35, 35%). Seventy-seven (78%) had at least one associated malformation. The most frequent malformations seen were genitourinary (28, 28%) and spinal anomalies (26, 26%). Those with rectovesical fistula had the highest proportion of genitourinary malformations (Odds Ratio [OR], 41.3; 95% confidence interval [CI], 4.7-363.4). Those with cloaca (OR, 49.5; 95% CI, 3.4-718.9) and those with rectovestibular fistula (OR, 12.4; 95% CI, 2.3-65.6) were most likely to have major spinal abnormalities, with tethered cord seen in all groups. The rectovestibular group was also most likely to have other associated malformations (OR, 8.6; 95% CI, 2.2-32.8).

CONCLUSION

More than 75% of children with anorectal malformation have other associated malformations. Genitourinary anomalies are the most common. Major spinal anomalies are seen in all groups, affecting nearly half of those with rectovestibular fistula and those without fistula. The incidence of associated malformations in the rectovestibular group is higher than described in the literature. Thorough systematic evaluation of all infants with ARM should be done regardless of type of ARM.

Familial occurrence of the VATER/VACTERL association

The acronym VATER/VACTERL association is used to describe the non-random co-occurrence of vertebral defects (V), anorectal malformations (A), cardiac defects (C), tracheo-esophageal fistula with or without esophageal atresia (TE), renal malformations (R), and limb defects (L). We report a familial case of VATER/VACTERL association in which both the index case and her maternal uncle displayed four major component features of the disorder. A systematic literature search identified 12 previously described familial cases. However, on comparison, both members fulfilled the diagnostic criteria for VATER/VACTERL association only in one instance, and ours is the second such report. Although, a SNP array-based analysis identified no causal genomic alteration, the findings in the present family suggest that genetic factors are implicated in the development of the disorder.

Medical predictors of psychological anxieties in VATER patients

BACKGROUND/PURPOSE

Following a recent classification of the VATER Association provided by the CURE-Net consortium (submitted), we investigate medical predictors of psychological stress and anxieties in this particular condition.

METHODS

We developed a new set of questionnaires measuring psychological adjustment and quality of life outcome in conditions associated with anorectal and/or urogenital malformation (one self- report form to be completed by patients 7-17 years of age, two parent report forms with one relating to patients with an age range of 0-6 years, resp. 7-17 years of age). The questionnaire "Malformation-related Stress and Anxieties" comprises 26 items belonging to five subscales (I. Functional and cosmetic impairment, II. Intimacy and relationship, III. Social inclusion, IV. Psychological functioning, V. Family functioning). Every item can be responded to with respect to both actual, present problems already experienced as well as to future anxieties anticipating future development and adjustment (a perspective which especially applies in younger patients). Internal consistencies of the scales are good, resp. very good (Cronbach's α = .85 concerning present sources of anxiety scale, resp., .94 concerning future anxieties scale). The items are supplied with a Likert-type 5-point scale. We administered the questionnaire in N = 17 children and adolescents suffering from VATER via parental (proxy) report.

RESULTS

As most medical risk factors affected nearly the entire sample, statistical analysis excluded investigation of differential impact on psychological stress experience and anxieties in subjects exposed versus not exposed. Special attention, therefore, was paid to those medical parameters with the best statistical power to differentiate between individuals of high versus low psychological outcome. Medical predictors differentiating between individuals with high versus low adjustment comprise post-operative infections of the urinary tract (t[15] = -3.78, p = .09), wound infections (t[15] = -3.04, p < .01), stoma complications (t[15] = -2.11, p = .08) (e.g., prolapsed (t[13] = -2.37, p = .05), other treatment complications (t[15] = -2.59, p < .05) and presence of a megacolon (t[13] = -2.44, p = .06).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

From the perspective of stress psychology, the findings may indicate that particular medical characteristics of a malformation may operate via two different pathways: (a) pathway of severity of a particular medical risk factor: the presence of a megacolon, for example, may restrict quality of life and successful adjustment via multiple and long term functional impairments associated and (b) pathway of subjective predictability and controllability of treatment course. In accordance with theoretical models from stress psychology, the psychological impact of complicating factors such as wound-healing infections is not operating via severity of impairment, but via implicit messages they convey, indicating a low predictability and controllability of course of disease and treatment. As a result, they may increase intensity of worry and anxieties upon further difficulties still to come during future development. As a conclusion, psychological counseling may not only address concrete functional impairments and stressors, but also basic feelings of insecurity, controllability and self-efficacy.

German network for congenital uro-rectal malformations: first evaluation and interpretation of postoperative urological complications in anorectal malformations

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the German Network for Congenital Uro-REctal Malformations is to collect data of affected patients with anorectal malformation (ARM) or extrophy-epispadias complex, and to investigate molecular causes, clinical implications, and psychosocial outcome. The current issue was to assess the postoperative sequelae related to lower urinary tract dysfunction in patients with ARM.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two hundred and sixty-seven patients with ARM (112 females, 155 males, median age 6 years, range 0-56 years) were investigated via standardized case report forms comprising interview, analysis of medical data, and personal questionnaires.

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients (12%, 23 males, 9 females) suffered from neurogenic bladder dysfunction, mainly associated with recto-urethral fistula (11 cases, 34%), and recto-vesical fistula (6 cases, 19%). Sixty-eight patients (26%, 35 males, 57 females) have experienced lifetime urinary tract infection, primarily associated with recto-urethral fistula (21 cases, 31%), and vestibular fistula (13 cases, 19%). According to type of operation, the highest number of postoperative urologic problems was reported after abdominosacroperineal pull-through.

CONCLUSION

Besides reconstructing the ARM, another main goal is the preservation of lower urinary tract function. In our data, there seems to be a close correlation between operative strategies and postoperative complications.

VACTERL/VATER Association

VACTERL/VATER association is typically defined by the presence of at least three of the following congenital malformations: vertebral defects, anal atresia, cardiac defects, tracheo-esophageal fistula, renal anomalies, and limb abnormalities. In addition to these core component features, patients may also have other congenital anomalies. Although diagnostic criteria vary, the incidence is estimated at approximately 1 in 10,000 to 1 in 40,000 live-born infants. The condition is ascertained clinically by the presence of the above-mentioned malformations; importantly, there should be no clinical or laboratory-based evidence for the presence of one of the many similar conditions, as the differential diagnosis is relatively large. This differential diagnosis includes (but is not limited to) Baller-Gerold syndrome, CHARGE syndrome, Currarino syndrome, deletion 22q11.2 syndrome, Fanconi anemia, Feingold syndrome, Fryns syndrome, MURCS association, oculo-auriculo-vertebral syndrome, Opitz G/BBB syndrome, Pallister-Hall syndrome, Townes-Brocks syndrome, and VACTERL with hydrocephalus. Though there are hints regarding causation, the aetiology has been identified only in a small fraction of patients to date, likely due to factors such as a high degree of clinical and causal heterogeneity, the largely sporadic nature of the disorder, and the presence of many similar conditions. New genetic research methods offer promise that the causes of VACTERL association will be better defined in the relatively near future. Antenatal diagnosis can be challenging, as certain component features can be difficult to ascertain prior to birth. The management of patients with VACTERL/VATER association typically centers around surgical correction of the specific congenital anomalies (typically anal atresia, certain types of cardiac malformations, and/or tracheo-esophageal fistula) in the immediate postnatal period, followed by long-term medical management of sequelae of the congenital malformations. If optimal surgical correction is achievable, the prognosis can be relatively positive, though some patients will continue to be affected by their congenital malformations throughout life. Importantly, patients with VACTERL association do not tend to have neurocognitive impairment.

The effect of vitamin A deficiency during pregnancy on anorectal malformations

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to study the effect of vitamin A deficiency (VAD) on the embryological development of anorectal malformations (ARMs) and the enteric nervous system.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Female Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into 3 groups: VAD group, normal group (negative control), and ethylene thiourea (ETU) group (positive control) with a normal diet. On day 20 of pregnancy, cesarean section was performed on all rats. The incidence of ARMs in the fetal rats and Protein gene product 9.5 (PGP9.5) and S-100 protein expression by immunohistochemistry were determined.

RESULTS

The incidence of ARMs in VAD and ETU groups was 64.8% (59/91) and 45.9% (61/133), respectively (P > .05). Anorectal malformations were not found in the normal group. Protein gene product 9.5 and S-100 protein expression in the non-ARM rectums of the VAD group was lower than the ETU (P = .0156 vs P = .0105) and normal groups (P = .0091 vs P = .0024). There was no significant difference in PGP9.5 and S-100 protein expression between ETU and normal groups. In the ARM rectums, PGP9.5 and S-100 protein expression in the VAD group was lower than the ETU group (P < .0001). Protein gene product 9.5 and S-100 protein expression was also lower in ARM than non-ARM rectums in the VAD and ETU groups (P < .0001, P = .0203, and P = .0122, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Vitamin A deficiency during pregnancy may result in the embryological development of ARMs. Enteric nervous system development may be related to ARMs.

Parental risk factors and anorectal malformations: systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Anorectal malformations (ARM) are rare forms of congenital uro-rectal anomalies with largely unknown causes. Besides genetic factors, prenatal exposures of the parents to nicotine, alcohol, caffeine, illicit drugs, occupational hazards, overweight/obesity and diabetes mellitus are suspected as environmental risk factors.

METHODS

Relevant studies published until August 2010 were identified through systematic search in PubMed, EMBASE, ISI Web of Knowledge and the Cochrane Library databases. Furthermore, related and cross-referencing publications were reviewed. Pooled odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) were determined to quantify associations of maternal and paternal smoking, maternal alcohol consumption, underweight (body mass index [BMI] < 18.5), overweight (BMI 25-29.9), obesity (BMI ≥30) and maternal diabetes mellitus with ARM using meta-analyses.

RESULTS

22 studies that reported on the association between prenatal environmental risk factors and infants born with ARM were included in this review. These were conducted in the United States of America (n = 12), Spain (n = 2), Sweden (n = 2), the Netherlands (n = 2), Japan (n = 1), France (n = 1), Germany (n = 1) and Hungary (n = 1). However, only few of these studies reported on the same risk factors. Studies were heterogeneous with respect to case numbers, control types and adjustment for covariates. Consistently increased risks were observed for paternal smoking and maternal overweight, obesity and diabetes, but not for maternal smoking and alcohol consumption. In meta-analyses, pooled odds ratios (95% confidence intervals) for paternal smoking, maternal overweight, obesity, pre-gestational and gestational diabetes were 1.53 (1.04-2.26), 1.25 (1.07-1.47), 1.64 (1.35-2.00), 4.51 (2.55-7.97) and 1.81 (1.23-2.65), respectively.

CONCLUSION

Evidence on risk factors for ARM from epidemiological studies is still very limited. Nevertheless, the few available studies indicate paternal smoking and maternal overweight, obesity and diabetes to be associated with increased risks. Further, ideally large-scale multicentre and register-based studies are needed to clarify the role of key risk factors for the development of ARM.