Mitochondrial DNA diversity in a population from Santa Catarina (Brazil): predominance of the European input

Maternal ancestry and lineages diversity of the Santander population from Colombia

Santander, located in the Andean region of Colombia, is one of the 32 departments of the country. Its population was shaped by intercontinental admixture between autochthonous native Americans, European settlers, and African slaves. To establish forensic databases of haplotype frequencies, the evaluation of population substructure is crucial to capture the genetic diversity in admixed populations. Total control region mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid haplotypes were determined for 204 individuals born in the seven provinces across the department. The maternal native heritage is highly preserved in Santander genetic background, with 90% of the haplotypes belonging to haplogroups inside A2, B4, C1, and D. Most native lineages are found broadly across the American continent, while some sub-branches are concentrated in Central America and north South America. Subtle European (6%) and African (4%) input was detected. In pairwise comparisons between provinces, relatively high FST values were found in some cases, although not statistically significant. Nonetheless, when provinces were grouped according to the principal component analysis results, significant differences were detected between groups. The database on mitochondrial deoxyribonucleic acid control region haplotype frequencies established here can be further used for populational and forensic purposes.

Population analysis of complete mitogenomes for 334 samples from El Salvador

The use of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) in the field of forensic genetics is widely spread mainly due to its advantages when identifying highly degraded samples. In this sense, massive parallel sequencing has made the analysis of the whole mitogenome more accessible, noticeably increasing the informativeness of mtDNA haplotypes. The civil war (1980-1992) in El Salvador caused many deaths and disappearances (including children) all across the country and the economic and social instability after the war forced many people to emigration. For this reason, different organizations have collected DNA samples from relatives with the aim of identifying missing people. Thus, we present a dataset containing 334 complete mitogenomes from the Salvadoran general population. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first publication of a nationwide forensic-quality complete mitogenome database of any Latin American country. We found 293 different haplotypes, with a random match probability of 0.0041 and 26.6 mean pairwise differences, which is similar to other Latin American populations, and which represent a marked improvement from the values obtained with just control region sequences. These haplotypes belong to 54 different haplogroups, being 91% of them of Native American origin. Over a third (35.9%) of the individuals carried at least a heteroplasmic site (excluding length heteroplasmies). Ultimately, the present database aims to represent mtDNA haplotype diversity in the general Salvadoran populations as a basis for the identification of people that disappeared during or after the civil war.

Haplotype distribution in a forensic full mtDNA genome database of admixed Southern Brazilians and its association with self-declared ancestry and pigmentation traits

BACKGROUND

The advent of massively parallel sequencing (MPS) applications focused on the generation of forensic-quality full mitochondrial genome sequences led to a popularization of the technique on a global scale. However, the lack of forensic-graded population databases has refrained a wider adoption of full genome sequences as the industry standard, despite its better discrimination capacity of individual maternal lineages.

PURPOSE

This work describes a forensic-oriented full mtDNA genome database comprised of 480 samples from a Southern Brazilian population.

METHODS

A collection of mitochondrial sequences were obtained from low-pass, full genome DNA sequencing results. The complete sample set was evaluated regarding haplotype composition and distribution. Summary statistics and forensic parameters were calculated and are presented for the database, with detailed information concerning the impact of removing genetic information in the form of specific variants or increasingly larger genomic regions. Interpopulational analysis comparing haplotypical diversity in Brazilian and 26 worldwide populations was also performed. The association between mitochondrial genetic variability and phenotypic diversity was also evaluated in populations, with self-declared ancestry and three distinct phenotypic pigmentation traits (eyes, skin and hair colors) as parameters.

RESULTS

The presented database can be used to evaluate mitochondrial-related genetic evidence, providing LR values of up to 20,465 for unobserved haplotypes. Haplotype distribution in Southern Brazil seems to be different than the remaining of the country, with a larger contribution of maternal lines with European origin. Despite association can be found between lighter and darker phenotypes or self-declared ancestry and haplotype distribution, prediction models cannot be reliably proposed due to the admixed nature of the Brazilian population.

CONCLUSIONS

The proposed database provides a basis for statistical calculation and frequency estimation of full mitochondrial genomes, and can be part of an integrated, representative, national database comprising most of the genetic diversity of maternal lineages in the country.

CCR5Δ32 in Brazil: Impacts of a European Genetic Variant on a Highly Admixed Population

The genetic background of Brazilians encompasses Amerindian, African, and European components as a result of the colonization of an already Amerindian inhabited region by Europeans, associated to a massive influx of Africans. Other migratory flows introduced into the Brazilian population genetic components from Asia and the Middle East. Currently, Brazil has a highly admixed population and, therefore, the study of genetic factors in the context of health or disease in Brazil is a challenging and remarkably interesting subject. This phenomenon is exemplified by the genetic variant CCR5Δ32, a 32 base-pair deletion in the CCR5 gene. CCR5Δ32 originated in Europe, but the time of origin as well as the selective pressures that allowed the maintenance of this variant and the establishment of its current frequencies in the different human populations is still a field of debates. Due to its origin, the CCR5Δ32 allele frequency is high in European-derived populations (~10%) and low in Asian and African native human populations. In Brazil, the CCR5Δ32 allele frequency is intermediate (4-6%) and varies on the Brazilian States, depending on the migratory history of each region. CCR5 is a protein that regulates the activity of several immune cells, also acting as the main HIV-1 co-receptor. The CCR5 expression is influenced by CCR5Δ32 genotypes. No CCR5 expression is observed in CCR5Δ32 homozygous individuals. Thus, the CCR5Δ32 has particular effects on different diseases. At the population level, the effect that CCR5Δ32 has on European populations may be different than that observed in highly admixed populations. Besides less evident due to its low frequency in admixed groups, the effect of the CCR5Δ32 variant may be affected by other genetic traits. Understanding the effects of CCR5Δ32 on Brazilians is essential to predict the potential use of pharmacological CCR5 modulators in Brazil. Therefore, this study reviews the impacts of the CCR5Δ32 on the Brazilian population, considering infectious diseases, inflammatory conditions, and cancer. Finally, this article provides a general discussion concerning the impacts of a European-derived variant, the CCR5Δ32, on a highly admixed population.

The Ancestry of Eastern Paraguay: A Typical South American Profile with a Unique Pattern of Admixture

Immigrants from diverse origins have arrived in Paraguay and produced important demographic changes in a territory initially inhabited by indigenous Guarani. Few studies have been performed to estimate the proportion of Native ancestry that is still preserved in Paraguay and the role of females and males in admixture processes. Therefore, 548 individuals from eastern Paraguay were genotyped for three marker sets: mtDNA, Y-SNPs and autosomal AIM-InDels. A genetic homogeneity was found between departments for each set of markers, supported by the demographic data collected, which showed that only 43% of the individuals have the same birthplace as their parents. The results show a sex-biased intermarriage, with higher maternal than paternal Native American ancestry. Within the native mtDNA lineages in Paraguay (87.2% of the total), most haplogroups have a broad distribution across the subcontinent, and only few are concentrated around the Paraná River basin. The frequency distribution of the European paternal lineages in Paraguay (92.2% of the total) showed a major contribution from the Iberian region. In addition to the remaining legacy of the colonial period, the joint analysis of the different types of markers included in this study revealed the impact of post-war migrations on the current genetic background of Paraguay.

Demographic, clinical, and ancestry characterization of a large cluster of mucopolysaccharidosis IV A in the Brazilian Northeast region

Mucopolysaccharidosis (MPS) IVA is a rare autosomal recessive disease with a highly variable distribution worldwide. Discrepancies in the incidence of MPS IVA among populations of different ethnicities are mostly attributed to founder effects. Demographic and clinical data from 28 MPS IVA patients, followed at a single center, and ancestry (Y chromosome and mitochondrial markers) of a subsample of 17 patients, most with the p.Ser341Arg (c.1023C>G) mutation were analyzed. Parental consanguinity was observed in 15/20 couples; a rare homozygous N-acetylgalactosamine-6-sulfatase (GALNS) mutation was found in 7/16 families with intra-familial phenotypic heterogeneity. Paternal ancestry was 94.2% (16/17) European, 5.8% (1/17) African, and 0% Amerindian. The European paternal haplogroups R1a, R1b, and R* accounted for 94.2% (16/17) of the patients. The R1b haplogroup, identified in 59% (10/17) of the patients, is frequently found in populations from the Iberian Peninsula. European, Amerindian, and African maternal ancestry was observed in 46.9% (8/17), 35.4% (6/17), and 17.7% (3/17) of the patients, respectively. Study of a cluster of MPS IVA patients from Northeastern Brazil, with high parental consanguinity and phenotypic heterogeneity showed predominantly European parental ancestry. This ancestry finding corroborates historical data on the local settlement, formed predominantly by European men.

Etiology of intellectual disability in individuals from special education schools in the south of Brazil

Background

Intellectual Disability (ID) is characterized by significant limitations that affect intellectual functioning, adaptive behavior, and practical skills which directly interfere with interpersonal relationships and the environment. In Western countries, individuals with ID are overrepresented in the health system, often due to associated comorbidities, and its life-time cost places ID as one of the most expensive conditions of all diagnoses in the International Classification of Diseases. Most of the people affected (75%) live in low-income countries, suffer from malnutrition, lack health care, and do not have access to adequate treatment. The aim of this study was to obtain an estimate of the diagnostic status as well as the prevalence of familial ID among individuals with serious (moderate or severe) ID in a region of the State of Santa Catarina, investigating attendees of special education schools of the Florianópolis Macroregion.

Methods

This was a cross-sectional study conducted between August 2011 and August 2014, through a semi-structured screening questionnaire for the collection of relevant developmental, clinical, familial and educational data, applied in an interview to guardians of students of special education schools of the macroregion of Florianópolis.

Results

The participant special schools enrolled close to 1700 students during the study period and the questionnaire was applied to 849 (50.5%). The male to female ratio of the participants was 1.39:1. Clear etiologic explanations were relatively scarce (24%); most diagnoses referring only to the type and the degree of impairment and for the majority (61.4%) the cause was unknown. About half were sporadic cases within their families (considering three generations). For 44.2% at least one other case of an ID-related condition in the extended family was mentioned, with 293 (34.5%) representing potential familial cases.

Conclusion

Here we describe the epidemiological profile, the available diagnostics, etiology, family history and possible parental consanguinity of participants with ID of special education schools in the South of Brazil. The main results show the need for etiological diagnosis and uncover the relevance of potential hereditary cases in a population where consanguineous unions have a relatively low frequency (0,6%) and highlight the need for public health actions.

Supplementary information

Supplementary information accompanies this paper at 10.1186/s12887-020-02382-5.

Full mtDNA genome sequencing of Brazilian admixed populations: A forensic-focused evaluation of a MPS application as an alternative to Sanger sequencing methods

The use of Massive Parallel Sequencing (MPS) techniques have been proposed by the forensic community as an alternative to Sanger sequencing methods in routine forensic casework analysis regarding mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). Interesting features of MPS include high throughput, ability to simultaneously genotype a significant number of samples by barcoding techniques, processing automation, reduced time and costs, among others. Advantages include the capability of generating full mtDNA genome sequences versus usual techniques, usually limited to hypervariable or control regions exclusively. In this work, 96 reference single-source samples from three different Brazilian cities were subjected to full mtDNA genome sequencing by MPS techniques using an early-access version of Precision ID mtDNA Whole Genome Panel on an Ion Torrent PGM platform (Thermo Fisher Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). Complete, high-quality sequences were obtained and sequencing performance was evaluated via four different metrics. As a subset of evaluated samples have been previously submitted for Sanger sequencing of the control region, a comparative analysis of both methods' results was conducted in order to compare technique adequacy within a forensic context. Even though this study is one of the first to report full mtDNA genome sequences for Brazilian admixed populations, the observed haplotypes exhibit a predominance of Native American and African maternal lineages in the studied sample set, reproducing results described in the literature for control regions only. Interpopulation analysis among Brazilian and 26 worldwide populations was also carried out. The results indicate that MPS-generated full mtDNA genome sequences may have great utility in forensic real casework applications, with a pronounced gain of genetic information and discrimination power provided by coding region evaluation and the enhanced capacity of heteroplasmies determination. Database construction and other relevant factors concerning implementation of such techniques in Brazilian forensic laboratories are also discussed.

Mitochondrial DNA control region haplotypes and haplogroup diversity in a sample from Brasília, Federal District, Brazil

Brazilians form one of the most heterogeneous populations in the world, as the result of five centuries of miscegenation between its native populations with migrants from Europe, Africa and Asia. The present study intended to characterize the frequencies of mtDNA haplotypes in a dataset of 306 individuals from Brasília, Federal District of Brazil. Brasília was built from scratch in the late 1950s and its construction attracted migrants from different regions of Brazil, mostly from Central-West, Northeast and Southeast regions. Due to its formation, its population is admixed. The goal of this study was to collect mtDNA population data and contribute to databases for a better use of mtDNA for forensic purposes. The haplotypes are available at EMPOP website under accession number EMP00695.

Mitochondrial DNA control region diversity in a population from Parana state-increasing the Brazilian forensic database

The entire mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) control region (nucleotide position 16024-576) sequences were obtained through Sanger sequencing method for 122 individuals from Parana state, South of Brazil. We observed a total of 108 different haplotypes of which 97 were unique and 11 were shared by more than one individual. The haplogroups were classified according to the updated mtDNA phylogeny, by EMMA (estimating mitochondrial haplogroups using a maximum likelihood approach). Our results revealed the predominance of Amerindian haplogroups with a frequency of 49.2% of the population sample, followed by European lineages with 38.5% and 12.3% of African lineages. Parana population sample set presented a high haplotype diversity (0.9976) and the random match probability was 0.0106. The phylogenetical findings and the diversity indices confirm the high genetic heterogeneity of this population and suggest a high informativeness of mtDNA analyses in forensic cases. The population data will contribute to increase the Brazilian mtDNA database for forensic purposes and it is available through EMPOP (European DNA Profiling Group mitochondrial DNA population database) under the accession number EMP00714.

Development of a new screening method to determine the main 52 mitochondrial haplogroups through a single minisequencing reaction

This work presents the design, development and optimization of a screening method based on single-base extension sequencing to simultaneously analyze a panel of 52 mitochondrial SNPs. This enables to recognize the main mitochondrial haplogroups and to discriminate even between lineages from the same phylogenetic branch that diverged in different continents. The unavailability of individuals harboring infrequent variants was a limitation to optimize the panel. To overcome this, we have modified DNA by site-directed mutagenesis to create the unavailable allelic variants. This allowed us to verify the reliability of this panel and its usefulness to be applied in biomedicine, forensic and population genetic studies.

Defining mtDNA origins and population stratification in Rio de Janeiro

The genetic composition of the Brazilian population was shaped by interethnic admixture between autochthonous Native Americans, Europeans settlers and African slaves. This structure, characteristic of most American populations, implies the need for large population forensic databases to capture the high diversity that is usually associated with admixed populations. In the present work, we sequenced the control region of mitochondrial DNA from 205 non-related individuals living in the Rio de Janeiro metropolitan region. Overall high haplotype diversity (0.9994 ± 0.0006) was observed, and pairwise comparisons showed a high proportion of haplotype pairs with more than one-point differences. When ignoring homopolymeric tracts, pairwise comparisons showed no differences 0.18% of the time, and differences in a single position were found with a frequency of 0.32%. A high percentage of African mtDNA was found (42%), with lineages showing a major South West origin. For the West Eurasian and Native American haplogroups (representing 32% and 26%, respectively) it was not possible to evaluate a clear geographic or linguistic affiliation. When grouping the mtDNA lineages according to their continental origin (Native American, European and African), differences were observed for the ancestry proportions estimated with autosomal ancestry-informative markers, suggesting some level of genetic substructure. The results from this study are in accordance with historical data where admixture processes are confirmed with a strong maternal contribution of African maternal ancestry and a relevant contribution of Native American maternal ancestry. Moreover, the evidence for some degree of association between mtDNA and autosomal information should be considered when combining these types of markers in forensic analysis.

mtDNA structure: the women who formed the Brazilian Northeast

BACKGROUND

The distribution of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) lineages in Brazil is heterogeneous due to different regional colonization dynamics. Northeastern Brazil, although being an important region in terms of human imigration and ethnic admixture, has little information regarding its population mtDNA composition. Here, we determine which mitochondrial lineages contributed to the formation of the Northeastern Brazilian population. Our sample consisted of 767 individuals distributed as follows i) 550 individuals from eight Northeastern states (Piauí, Ceará, Rio Grande do Norte, Paraíba, Pernambuco, Alagoas, Sergipe, and Bahia) which were sequenced for mtDNA hypervariable segments I, II, and III; ii) 217 individuals from Alagoas and Pernambuco (previously published data). Data analysis was performed through sequence alignment and Haplogrep 2.0 haplogroup assignment tools. Furthermore, maternal ancestry distribution was contextualized and, when possible, related to historical events to better understand the biological interactions and population dynamics that occurred in this region since the beginning of colonization.

RESULTS

Unexpectedly, Amerindian mitochondrial ancestry was the highest in the Northeastern region overall, followed by African, European and non-Amerindian Asian, unlike previous results for this region. Alagoas and Pernambuco states, however, showed a larger African mtDNA frequency. The Northeastern region showed an intraregional heterogeneous distribution regarding ancestral groups, in which states/mesoregions located to the north had a prevalent Amerindian ancestral frequency and those to the south had predominance of African ancestry. Moreover, results showed great diversity of European haplogroups and the presence of non-Amerindian Asian haplogroups.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings are in disagreement with previous investigations that suggest African mitochondrial ancestry is the most prevalent in the Brazilian Northeast. The predominance of Amerindian lineages exemplifies the importance of indigenous women in the formation of the population, despite intense African slave entry and conflicts with European settlers. The variable distribution of ancestral groups observed in the Northeast is in accordance with historical records showing the similarities with colonization dynamics occurred in the Amazon region and the Brazilian Southeast. Moreover, the variety of European haplogroups suggests multiple origins of founding groups, specially those found in Western European populations.

A South American Prehistoric Mitogenome: Context, Continuity, and the Origin of Haplogroup C1d

Based on mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA), it has been estimated that at least 15 founder haplogroups peopled the Americas. Subhaplogroup C1d3 was defined based on the mitogenome of a living individual from Uruguay that carried a lineage previously identified in hypervariable region I sequences from ancient and modern Uruguayan individuals. When complete mitogenomes were studied, additional substitutions were found in the coding region of the mitochondrial genome. Using a complete ancient mitogenome and three modern mitogenomes, we aim to clarify the ancestral state of subhaplogroup C1d3 and to better understand the peopling of the region of the Río de la Plata basin, as well as of the builders of the mounds from which the ancient individuals were recovered. The ancient mitogenome, belonging to a female dated to 1,610±46 years before present, was identical to the mitogenome of one of the modern individuals. All individuals share the mutations defining subhaplogroup C1d3. We estimated an age of 8,974 (5,748–12,261) years for the most recent common ancestor of C1d3, in agreement with the initial peopling of the geographic region. No individuals belonging to the defined lineage were found outside of Uruguay, which raises questions regarding the mobility of the prehistoric inhabitants of the country. Moreover, the present study shows the continuity of Native lineages over at least 6,000 years.

Haplotype diversity in mitochondrial DNA hypervariable region in a population of southeastern Brazil

Brazilian population derives from Native Amerindians, Europeans, and Africans. Southeastern Brazil is the most populous region of the country. The present study intended to characterize the maternal genetic ancestry of 290 individuals from southeastern (Brazil) population. Thus, we made the sequencing of the three hypervariable regions (HV1, HV2, and HV3) of the mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA). The statistical analyses were made using Arlequin software, and the median-joining haplotype networks were generated using Network software. The analysis of three hypervariable regios showed 230 (79.3 %) unique haplotypes and the most common haplotype was "263G" carried by 12 (4.1 %) individuals. The strikingly high variability generated by intense gene flow is mirrored in a high sequence diversity (0.9966 ± 0.0010), and the probability of two random individuals showing identical mtDNA haplotypes were 0.0068. The analysis of haplogroup distribution revealed that 36.9 % (n = 107) presented Amerindian haplogroups, 35.2 % (n = 102) presented African haplogroups, 27.6 % (n = 80) presented European haplogroups, and one (0.3 %) individual presented East Asian haplogroup, evidencing that the southeastern population is extremely heterogeneous and the coexistence of matrilineal lineages with three different phylogeographic origins. The genetic diversity found in the mtDNA control region in the southeastern Brazilian population reinforces the importance of increased national database in order to be important and informative in forensic cases.

MtDNA ancestry of Rio de Janeiro population, Brazil

Polymorphism studies concerning HVI and HVII regions of mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) have improved the understanding of the admixture genetic process related to the occupation of the continents by human population groups. We have analyzed the mtDNA lineages of 190 healthy and maternally unrelated individuals born in the metropolitan region of the Rio de Janeiro city, the capital of the State of Rio de Janeiro, southeastern Brazil. The data showing that 57.9, 25.3 and 16.8 % of the matrilineages found in Rio de Janeiro come from African, Amerindian and European population groups. They are, respectively, in close agreement with historical records which indicate that the admixture population of Brazil is the resulting of interethnic asymmetry crosses between individuals from those population groups. The high proportion of African mtDNA lineages in the population of Rio de Janeiro is in accordance with studies related to other Brazilian states.

Mitochondrial DNA control region data reveal high prevalence of Native American lineages in Jujuy province, NW Argentina

Mitochondrial control region (16024-576) sequences were generated from 180 individuals of four population nuclei from the province of Jujuy (NW Argentina), located at different altitudes above sea level. The frequency at which a randomly selected mtDNA profile would be expected to occur in the general population (random match probability) was estimated at 0.011, indicating a relatively high diversity. Analysis of the haplogroup distribution revealed that Native American lineages A2 (13.9%), B (56.7%), C1 (17.8%), D1 (8.9%) and D4h3a (1.1%) accounted for more than 98% of the total mtDNA haplogroup diversity in the sample examined. We detected a certain degree of genetic heterogeneity between two subpopulations located at different points along the altitudinal gradient (Valles and Puna), suggesting that altitude above sea level cannot be ruled out as a factor promoting divergences in mtDNA haplogroup frequencies, since altitude is closely associated with human living conditions, and consequently, with low demographic sizes and the occurrence of genetic drift processes in human communities. In all, mitochondrial DNA database obtained for Jujuy province strongly points to the need for creating local mtDNA databases, to avoid bias in forensic estimations caused by genetic substructuring of the populations.

An alternative model for the early peopling of southern South America revealed by analyses of three mitochondrial DNA haplogroups

After several years of research, there is now a consensus that America was populated from Asia through Beringia, probably at the end of the Pleistocene. But many details such as the timing, route(s), and origin of the first settlers remain uncertain. In the last decade genetic evidence has taken on a major role in elucidating the peopling of the Americas. To study the early peopling of South America, we sequenced the control region of mitochondrial DNA from 300 individuals belonging to indigenous populations of Chile and Argentina, and also obtained seven complete mitochondrial DNA sequences. We identified two novel mtDNA monophyletic clades, preliminarily designated B2l and C1b13, which together with the recently described D1g sub-haplogroup have locally high frequencies and are basically restricted to populations from the extreme south of South America. The estimated ages of D1g and B2l, about ~15,000 years BP, together with their similar population dynamics and the high haplotype diversity shown by the networks, suggests that they probably appeared soon after the arrival of the first settlers and agrees with the dating of the earliest archaeological sites in South America (Monte Verde, Chile, 14,500 BP). One further sub-haplogroup, D4h3a5, appears to be restricted to Fuegian-Patagonian populations and reinforces our hypothesis of the continuity of the current Patagonian populations with the initial founders. Our results indicate that the extant native populations inhabiting South Chile and Argentina are a group which had a common origin, and suggest a population break between the extreme south of South America and the more northern part of the continent. Thus the early colonization process was not just an expansion from north to south, but also included movements across the Andes.

Mitochondrial diversity in Amerindian Kichwa and Mestizo populations from Ecuador

This study presents mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) data from 107 unrelated individuals from two of the major ethnic groups in Ecuador: Amerindian Kichwas (n = 65) and Mestizos (n = 42). We characterized the diversity of the matrilineal lineages of these Ecuadorian groups by analyzing the entire mtDNA control region. Different patterns of diversity were observed in the two groups as result of the unique historical and demographic events which have occurred in each population. Higher genetic diversity values were obtained for the Mestizo group than for the Amerindian group. Interestingly, only Native American lineages were detected in the two population samples, but with differences in the haplogroup distribution: Kichwa (A, 49%; B, 3%; C, 8%; and D, 40%) and Mestizo (A, 33%; B, 33%; C, 10%; and D, 24%). Analysis of the complete mtDNA control region proved to be useful to increase the discrimination power between individuals who showed common haplotypes in HVSI and HVSII segments; and added valuable information to the phylogenetic interpretation of mtDNA haplotypes.