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Citti C, Laganà A, Capriotti AL, Montone CM, Cannazza G. Kratom: The analytical challenge of an emerging herbal drug. J Chromatogr A 2023; 1703:464094. [PMID: 37262932 DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2023.464094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/20/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa or kratom is emerging worldwide as a "legal" herbal drug of abuse. An increasing number of papers is appearing in the scientific literature regarding its pharmacological profile and the analysis of its chemical constituents, mainly represented by alkaloids. However, its detection and identification are not straightforward as the plant material is not particularly distinctive. Hyphenated techniques are generally preferred for the identification and quantification of these compounds, especially the main purported psychoactive substances, mitragynine (MG) and 7-hydroxymitragynine (7-OH-MG), in raw and commercial products. Considering the vast popularity of this recreational drug and the growing concern about its safety, the analysis of alkaloids in biological specimens is also of great importance for forensic and toxicological laboratories. The review addresses the analytical aspects of kratom spanning the extraction techniques used to isolate the alkaloids, the qualitative and quantitative analytical methods and the strategies for the distinction of the naturally occurring isomers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Citti
- Institute of Nanotechnology - CNR NANOTEC, Campus Ecotekne, Via Monteroni, Lecce 73100, Italy.
| | - Aldo Laganà
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Anna Laura Capriotti
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Carmela Maria Montone
- Department of Chemistry, Sapienza University of Rome, Piazzale Aldo Moro 5, Rome 00185, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Cannazza
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, Modena 41125, Italy.
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2
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Dobielska M, Bartosik NK, Zyzik KA, Kowalczyk E, Karbownik MS. Mechanisms of Cognitive Impairment in Depression. May Probiotics Help? Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:904426. [PMID: 35757204 PMCID: PMC9218185 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.904426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/16/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Depression is the major cause of disability globally. Apart from lowered mood and accompanying symptoms, it leads to cognitive impairment that altogether predicts disadvantaged social functioning. Reduced cognitive function in depression appears a bit neglected in the field of clinical and molecular psychiatry, while it is estimated to occur in two-thirds of depressed patients and persist in at least one third of remitted patients. This problem, therefore, requires elucidation at the biomolecular and system levels and calls for improvement in therapeutic approach. In this review study, we address the above-mentioned issues by discussing putative mechanisms of cognitive decline in depression: (1) increased oxidative stress and (2) inflammation, (3) disturbed hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenals axis, and (4) reduced monoamines functionality. Moreover, we acknowledge additional underpinnings of cognitive impairment in depressed elderly: (5) vascular-originated brain ischemia and (6) amyloid-beta plaque accumulation. Additionally, by reviewing molecular, pre-clinical and clinical evidence, we propose gut microbiota-targeted strategies as potential adjuvant therapeutics. The study provides a consolidated source of knowledge regarding mechanisms of cognitive impairment in depression and may path the way toward improved treatment options.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Dobielska
- Students' Research Club, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland
| | - Natalia Karina Bartosik
- Students' Research Club, Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland
| | - Kamil A Zyzik
- Institute of Sociology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Edward Kowalczyk
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Medical University of Łódź, Łódź, Poland
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3
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Iman IN, Ahmad NAZ, Mohd Yusof NA, Talib UN, Norazit A, Kumar J, Mehat MZ, Hassan Z, Müller CP, Muzaimi M. Mitragynine (Kratom)-Induced Cognitive Impairments in Mice Resemble Δ9-THC and Morphine Effects: Reversal by Cannabinoid CB 1 Receptor Antagonism. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:708055. [PMID: 34603022 PMCID: PMC8481666 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.708055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 08/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Kratom is a widely abused plant-based drug preparation with a global interest in recent years, well beyond its native grounds in Southeast Asia. Mitragynine, its major psychoactive constituent is known to exhibit opioid-like behavioral effects with resultant neuroplasticity in the brain reward system. Its chronic administration is associated with cognitive impairments in animal studies. However, the underlying molecular mechanism for such a deficit remains elusive. In this study, the involvement of cannabinoid type-1 (CB1) receptors in cognitive deficits after chronic mitragynine exposures was investigated for 28 days (with incremental dose sensitization from 1 to 25 mg/kg) in adult male Swiss albino mice using the IntelliCage® system. Chronic high-dose mitragynine exposure (5–25 mg/kg, intraperitoneal [i.p.]), but not low-dose exposure (1–4 mg/kg, i.p.), induced hyperlocomotion, potentiated the preference for sucrose reward, increased resistance to punishment, and impaired place learning and its reversal. Comparable deficits were also observed after chronic treatments with Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC, 2 mg/kg, i.p.) or morphine (5 mg/kg, subcutaneous). Mitragynine-, morphine-, and THC-induced learning and memory deficits were reversed by co-treatment with the CB1 receptor antagonist, NIDA-41020 (10 mg/kg, i.p.). A significant upregulation of CB1 receptor expression was found in the hippocampal CA1 region and ventral tegmental area after chronic high-dose mitragynine and morphine, whereas a downregulation was observed after chronic THC. In conclusion, the present study suggests a plausible role of the CB1 receptor in mediating the dose-dependent cognitive deficits after chronic high-dose mitragynine exposure. This also highlights the potential of CB1 receptor antagonism in ameliorating the cognitive deficits associated with long-term kratom/mitragynine consumption in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ismail Nurul Iman
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Nur Aimi Zawami Ahmad
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Nurul Aiman Mohd Yusof
- Department of Anatomy, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Ummi Nasrah Talib
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
| | - Anwar Norazit
- Department of Biomedical Science, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Jaya Kumar
- Department of Physiology, Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia Medical Centre, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Muhammad Zulfadli Mehat
- Department of Human Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Universiti Putra Malaysia, Serdang, Malaysia
| | - Zurina Hassan
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia
| | - Christian P Müller
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Minden, Malaysia.,Section of Addiction Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic, Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Mustapha Muzaimi
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Health Campus, Kota Bharu, Malaysia
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4
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Díaz-Pillasca HB, Hernández-Amasifuen AD, Machahua M, Pineda-Lázaro AJ, Argüelles-Curaca A, Lugo B. Código de barras de ADN de tres especies de árboles frutales con potencial económico del valle de Huaura, Lima, Perú. BIONATURA 2021. [DOI: 10.21931/rb/2021.06.03.18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
El Perú presenta una gran diversidad de recursos genéticos, pero a la vez se desaprovechan especies por desconocimiento o bajo rendimiento económico. Situación que se refleja en el valle de Huaura con los árboles frutales de cansaboca (Bunchosia armeniaca), palillo (Campomanesia lineatifolia) y naranja agria (Citrus aurantium), especies con gran importancia en la gastronomía tradicional local, pero en la actualidad catalogadas en peligro crítico. Con el fin de conservar estas especies se planteó como objetivo establecer código de barras de ADN de tres especies amenazadas con potencial económico del valle de Huaura. Se extrajo ADN de las tres especies con el método CTAB y para las amplificaciones en PCR se emplearon los cebadores de código de barras de ADN universales pertenecientes a cloroplastos: matK, rbcL y trnH-psbA. A partir de los productos purificados y cuantificados se realizó el secuenciamiento de las muestras. Las secuencias fueron analizadas, alineadas y agrupadas con los programas Bioedit, Codon Code Aligner y MEGA respectivamente. Las concentraciones de ADN fueron: palillo (457 ng/μl), cansaboca (433 ng/μl) y naranja agria (442 ng/μl). La amplificación de los cebadores produjo productos de PCR entre 357 y 810 pb. Las secuencias de NCBI que presentaron mayor porcentaje de identidad con cada especie en estudio fueron sometidas a análisis filogenético, los cuales colocaron a las especies en grupos distintos y revelando diferencia genética con las muestras estudiadas. Se proporcionaron las herramientas básicas para implementar códigos de barras de ADN en tres especies de árboles frutales en el valle de Huaura.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hermila Belba Díaz-Pillasca
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Facultad de Ciencias, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Huacho, Perú,
| | - Angel David Hernández-Amasifuen
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Facultad de Ciencias, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Huacho, Perú,
| | - Miguel Machahua
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Facultad de Ciencias, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Huacho, Perú,
| | - Alexandra Jherina Pineda-Lázaro
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Facultad de Ciencias, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Huacho, Perú,
| | - Alexis Argüelles-Curaca
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Facultad de Ciencias, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Huacho, Perú,
| | - Brayan Lugo
- Universidad Nacional José Faustino Sánchez Carrión, Facultad de Ciencias, Laboratorio de Biotecnología Vegetal, Huacho, Perú,
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Environmental implications and evidence of natural products from dental calculi of a Neolithic-Chalcolithic community (central Italy). Sci Rep 2021; 11:10665. [PMID: 34021220 PMCID: PMC8140145 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-89999-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
In this contribution, we investigated the role of plants in the prehistoric community of Casale del Dolce (Anagni, FR, central Italy), through microparticles recovered from dental calculus. The finding of a great amount of pollen types, even in form of compact lumps, could indicate use of natural substances, such as honeybee products and/or conifer resins. This plant-microremain record also suggested environmental implications relative to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic period. Additionally, the stability of the tartar microenvironment had preserved starches and other microparticles, such as one epidermal trichome, a sporangium, and fragments of plant tissue, rarely detected in ancient dental calculus. The detection of secondary metabolites in the ancient matrix confirmed the familiarity of this community with plant resources. All these data supply various interesting food for thought and expand the knowledge about the potential of dental calculus in archaeological and archaeobotanical fields with a special focus on palaeoecology.
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Potential Risks of Plant Constituents in Dietary Supplements: Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Peganum harmala Seeds. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26051368. [PMID: 33806424 PMCID: PMC7961586 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26051368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/25/2021] [Accepted: 02/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The free online trading of herbal mixtures useful for various purposes facilitates the circulation of dangerous herbs or plant parts. This is the case, for example, of the illegal trade in seeds of Peganum harmala (Pgh), which contain alkaloids capable of inhibiting monoamine oxidase (MAO) and are therefore used in hallucinogenic preparations, such as the psychedelic drink ayahuasca. The precise identification of these seeds and their distinction from other very similar but not dangerous seeds are necessary for forensic purposes and represents an advance in avoiding the adulteration of mixtures. In this work, we show the qualitative identification of Pgh seeds by optical and electron microscopy and the parallel development of a real-time qPCR test, which reveals, in a species-specific manner, the presence of Pgh DNA up to quantities lower than 1 pg. In addition to the species specificity and high sensitivity, the reaction accurately quantifies the presence of seeds or parts of seeds of Pgh in complex herbal mixtures, thus giving an indication of the danger or otherwise of the product.
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Alloisio S, Clericuzio M, Nobile M, Salis A, Damonte G, Canali C, Fortuna-Perez AP, Cornara L, Burlando B. Cannabis-like activity of Zornia latifolia Sm. detected in vitro on rat cortical neurons: major role of the flavone syzalterin. Drug Chem Toxicol 2020; 45:919-931. [PMID: 32628037 DOI: 10.1080/01480545.2020.1788057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Zornia latifolia is a plant suspected to possess psychoactive properties and marketed as a marijuana substitute under the name 'maconha brava'. In this study, the effects of fractions obtained from a 2-propanol extract of aerial portions of the plant were determined by multielectrode array (MEA) analyses on cultured networks of rat cortical neurons. Lipophilic (ZL_lipo, mainly containing flavonoid aglycones), and hydrophilic (ZL_hydro, mainly containing flavonoid glycosides) fractions were initially obtained from the raw extract. ZL_lipo significantly inhibited mean firing rate (MFR) and mean bursting rate (MBR) of MEA recordings, while ZL_hydro induced no inhibition. Column chromatography separation of ZL_lipo yielded five fractions (ZL1-ZL5), among which ZL1 induced the strongest MFR and MBR inhibition. NMR and HPLC-MS analyses of ZL1 revealed the prevalence of the common flavonoids genistein (1) and apigenin (2) (in about a 1:1 ratio), and the presence of the rare flavone syzalterin (6,8-dimethylapigenin) (3) as a minor compound. Exposures of MEA to apigenin and genistein standards did not induce the MFR and MBR inhibition observed with ZL1, whereas exposure to syzalterin standard or to a 1:9 mixture syzalterin-genistein induced effects similar to ZL1. These inhibitory effects were comparable to that observed with high-THC hashish, possibly accounting for the plant psychoactive properties. Data indicate that Z. latifolia, currently marketed as a free herbal product, should be subjected to measures of control. In addition, syzalterin showed distinctive pharmacological properties, opening the way to its possible exploitation as a neuroactive drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanna Alloisio
- ETT Spa, Genova, Italy.,National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Biophysics, Genova, Italy
| | - Marco Clericuzio
- Department of Sciences and Technological Innovation (DISIT), University of Eastern Piedmont, Alessandria, Italy
| | - Mario Nobile
- National Research Council (CNR), Institute of Biophysics, Genova, Italy
| | - Annalisa Salis
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Gianluca Damonte
- Center of Excellence for Biomedical Research (CEBR), University of Genova, Genova, Italy.,Department of Experimental Medicine (DIMES), Section of Biochemistry, University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Claudia Canali
- Forensic Science Police Service, Italian National Police, Genova, Italy
| | | | - Laura Cornara
- Department of Earth, Environment and Life Sciences (DISTAV), University of Genova, Genova, Italy
| | - Bruno Burlando
- Department of Pharmacy (DIFAR), University of Genova, Genova, Italy
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8
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Cowan AF, Elkins KM. Detection and Identification of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) and Marijuana (Cannabis sativa) by a Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction High-Resolution Melt Duplex Assay . J Forensic Sci 2019; 65:52-60. [PMID: 31433500 DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.14167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2019] [Revised: 06/12/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (MS), a plant commonly known as kratom, is a widely used "legal high" opiate alternative for pain relief. DNA extracted from MS and 26 additional plant species was amplified by PCR using primers targeting the strictosidine beta-D-glucosidase (SGD) and secologanin synthase 2 (SLS2) genes and detected by high-resolution melt curves using three intercalating dyes. Amplicon sizes were confirmed using agarose gel electrophoresis. The observed melt temperatures for SGD and SLS2 were 77.08 ± 0.38°C and 77.61 ± 0.46°C, respectively, using SYBR® Green I; 80.18 ± 0.27°C and 80.59 ± 0.08°C, respectively, using Radiant™ Green; and 82.19 ± 0.04°C and 82.62 ± 0.13°C, respectively, using the LCGreen® PLUS dye. The SLS2 primers demonstrated higher specificity and identified MS DNA at 0.05 ng/μL. In a duplex reaction, SLS2 and tetrahydrocannabinoic acid synthase gene primers detected and differentiated MS and Cannabis sativa (CS) by melt peaks at 82.63 ± 0.35°C and 85.58 ± 0.23°C, respectively, using LCGreen® PLUS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley F Cowan
- Chemistry Department, Forensic Science Program, Towson University, 8000 York Rd, Towson, MD, 21252
| | - Kelly M Elkins
- Chemistry Department, Forensic Science Program, Towson University, 8000 York Rd, Towson, MD, 21252
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Boffa L, Ghè C, Barge A, Muccioli G, Cravotto G. Alkaloid Profiles and Activity in Different Mitragyna speciosa Strains. Nat Prod Commun 2018. [DOI: 10.1177/1934578x1801300904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitragyna speciosa (K.) H. (Kratom) is a tree that possesses stimulant and opioid-like analgesic effects, and is indigenous to Southeast Asia and Indochina, where it has seen widespread use for hundreds of years. The principal pharmacologically active alkaloids in kratom leaves include mitragynine (MG), 7-hydroxymitragynine (HMG), speciociliatine (SC), speciogynine (SG) and paynantheine (P). The pharmacological effects induced and their potency can vary dramatically according to variations in the proportions of alkaloid compounds present, which are related to geographic origin, stage of maturity and ecotype. Much of the analgesic and opiate-like psychoactive effect of kratom has been associated with the MG and HMG detected in M. speciosa (K.). H. Five different strains of M. speciosa (K.) H., which present differing vein colours and geographic origin, have been studied herein; red vein strains from Thailand, Malaysia and Bali, named Red Thai, Red Malay and Red Bali, a white vein strain from Borneo (White Borneo) and a green vein strain from Malaysia (Green Malay) were included in the study. Plant leaves were extracted under magnetic stirring at room temperature in a MeOH/H2O 1:1 mixture. Purified alkaloids were isolated in a number of organic extraction steps, from either aqueous basic or acidic phases, that culminated in precipitation (yields between 0.94 and 1.43%). These samples have been analysed using HPLC-DAD, HPLC-MS, HPLC-MS/MS and GC-MS to optimize the identification and quantification of the principal alkaloids present in the different strains. 24 alkaloids were detected in Red Bali whereas 11 compounds were found in the other varieties. Red Thai, Red Bali, Green Malay and White Borneo strains had a higher w/w percentage for MG than for P, while P was more abundant in Red Malay. The Green Malay variety (GMK) showed the highest w/w percentages for MG and total alkaloids in its extracts (59.7 and 94.9% respectively). The Green Malay variety was therefore chosen for in vivo pharmacological studies. The Green Malay extract has shown remarkable and significant antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory activity in mouse hot plate and carrageenan-induced paw edema tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Boffa
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Corrado Ghè
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Alessandro Barge
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giampiero Muccioli
- Laboratory of Experimental Pharmacology. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
| | - Giancarlo Cravotto
- Laboratory of Organic Chemistry. Dipartimento di Scienza e Tecnologia del Farmaco, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
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Zornia latifolia: a smart drug being adulterated by Stylosanthes guianensis. Int J Legal Med 2018; 132:1321-1331. [PMID: 29362872 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-018-1774-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 01/09/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Dried herbal preparations, based on "Zornia latifolia," are commonly sold on web, mainly for their supposed hallucinogenic properties. In this work, we demonstrate that these commercial products contain a different Fabacea, i.e., Stylosanthes guianensis, a cheaper plant, widely cultivated in tropical regions as a fodder legume. We were provided with plant samples of true Zornia latifolia from Brazil, and carried out a thorough comparison of the two species. The assignment of commercial samples was performed by means of micro-morphological analysis, DNA barcoding, and partial phytochemical investigation. We observed that Z. latifolia contains large amounts of flavonoid di-glycosides derived from luteolin, apigenin, and genistein, while in S. guianensis lesser amounts of flavonoids, mainly derived from quercetin, were found. It is likely that the spasmolytic and anxiolytic properties of Z. latifolia, as reported in traditional medicine, derive from its contents in apigenin and/or genistein.
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11
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Ismail NIW, Jayabalan N, Mansor SM, Müller CP, Muzaimi M. Chronic mitragynine (kratom) enhances punishment resistance in natural reward seeking and impairs place learning in mice. Addict Biol 2017; 22:967-976. [PMID: 26990882 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2015] [Revised: 02/06/2016] [Accepted: 02/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is a widely abused herbal drug preparation in Southeast Asia. It is often consumed as a substitute for heroin, but imposing itself unknown harms and addictive burdens. Mitragynine is the major psychostimulant constituent of kratom that has recently been reported to induce morphine-like behavioural and cognitive effects in rodents. The effects of chronic consumption on non-drug related behaviours are still unclear. In the present study, we investigated the effects of chronic mitragynine treatment on spontaneous activity, reward-related behaviour and cognition in mice in an IntelliCage® system, and compared them with those of morphine and Δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). We found that chronic mitragynine treatment significantly potentiated horizontal exploratory activity. It enhanced spontaneous sucrose preference and also its persistence when the preference had aversive consequences. Furthermore, mitragynine impaired place learning and its reversal. Thereby, mitragynine effects closely resembled that of morphine and THC sensitisation. These findings suggest that chronic mitragynine exposure enhances spontaneous locomotor activity and the preference for natural rewards, but impairs learning and memory. These findings confirm pleiotropic effects of mitragynine (kratom) on human lifestyle, but may also support the recognition of the drug's harm potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurul Iman W. Ismail
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences; Universiti Sains Malaysia; Malaysia
- Centre for Neuroscience Services and Research; Universiti Sains Malaysia; Malaysia
| | - Nanthini Jayabalan
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences; Universiti Sains Malaysia; Malaysia
- Centre for Neuroscience Services and Research; Universiti Sains Malaysia; Malaysia
| | | | - Christian P. Müller
- Section of Addiction Medicine, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy; Friedrich-Alexander-University Erlangen-Nuremberg; Germany
| | - Mustapha Muzaimi
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medical Sciences; Universiti Sains Malaysia; Malaysia
- Centre for Neuroscience Services and Research; Universiti Sains Malaysia; Malaysia
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12
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Brown PN, Lund JA, Murch SJ. A botanical, phytochemical and ethnomedicinal review of the genus Mitragyna korth: Implications for products sold as kratom. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2017; 202:302-325. [PMID: 28330725 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2017.03.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2016] [Revised: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The genus Mitragyna (Rubiacaeae) has been traditionally used in parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania. In recent years, there has been increased interest in species of Mitragyna with the introduction of products to western markets and regulatory uncertainty. AIM OF THE STUDY This paper reviewed the traditional ethnomedicinal uses of leaves for species belonging to the genus Mitragyna with reference to the botany and known chemistry in order to highlight areas of interest for products currently being sold as kratom. MATERIALS AND METHODS A literature search was conducted using Web of Science, Google Scholar, the Royal Museum for Central Africa, Internet Archive, Hathi Trust, and Biodiversity Heritage Library search engines in the spring of 2015, fall of 2016 and winter of 2017 to document uses of bark, leaf and root material. RESULTS Leaves of M. speciosa (kratom) had the most common documented ethnomedicinal uses as an opium substitute or remedy for addiction. Other species of Mitragyna were reportedly used for treating pain, however the mode of preparation was most often cited as topical application. Other uses of Mitragyna included treatment of fever, skin infections, and as a mild anxiolytic. CONCLUSIONS Mitragyna species have been used medicinally in various parts of the world and that there is significant traditional evidence of use. Modern products that include formulations as topical application of liniments, balms or tinctures may provide effective alternatives for treatment of certain types of pains. Future research is required to establish safety and toxicology limits, medicinal chemistry parameters and the potential for different physiological responses among varying genetic populations to support regulatory requirements for Mitragyna spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula N Brown
- Natural Health Products and Food Research Group, British Columbia Institute of Technology, 4355 Mathissi Place, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5G 4S8; Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada V1V 1V7
| | - Jensen A Lund
- Natural Health Products and Food Research Group, British Columbia Institute of Technology, 4355 Mathissi Place, Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada V5G 4S8; Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada V1V 1V7
| | - Susan J Murch
- Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 3247 University Way, Kelowna, British Columbia, Canada V1V 1V7.
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13
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Poisonous or non-poisonous plants? DNA-based tools and applications for accurate identification. Int J Legal Med 2016; 131:1-19. [PMID: 27796590 DOI: 10.1007/s00414-016-1460-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/05/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Plant exposures are among the most frequently reported cases to poison control centres worldwide. This is a growing condition due to recent societal trends oriented towards the consumption of wild plants as food, cosmetics, or medicine. At least three general causes of plant poisoning can be identified: plant misidentification, introduction of new plant-based supplements and medicines with no controls about their safety, and the lack of regulation for the trading of herbal and phytochemical products. Moreover, an efficient screening for the occurrence of plants poisonous to humans is also desirable at the different stages of the food supply chain: from the raw material to the final transformed product. A rapid diagnosis of intoxication cases is necessary in order to provide the most reliable treatment. However, a precise taxonomic characterization of the ingested species is often challenging. In this review, we provide an overview of the emerging DNA-based tools and technologies to address the issue of poisonous plant identification. Specifically, classic DNA barcoding and its applications using High Resolution Melting (Bar-HRM) ensure high universality and rapid response respectively, whereas High Throughput Sequencing techniques (HTS) provide a complete characterization of plant residues in complex matrices. The pros and cons of each approach have been evaluated with the final aim of proposing a general user's guide to molecular identification directed to different stakeholder categories interested in the diagnostics of poisonous plants.
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Nithaniyal S, Vassou SL, Poovitha S, Raju B, Parani M. Identification of species adulteration in traded medicinal plant raw drugs using DNA barcoding. Genome 2016; 60:139-146. [PMID: 28067539 DOI: 10.1139/gen-2015-0225] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Plants are the major source of therapeutic ingredients in complementary and alternative medicine (CAM). However, species adulteration in traded medicinal plant raw drugs threatens the reliability and safety of CAM. Since morphological features of medicinal plants are often not intact in the raw drugs, DNA barcoding was employed for species identification. Adulteration in 112 traded raw drugs was tested after creating a reference DNA barcode library consisting of 1452 rbcL and matK barcodes from 521 medicinal plant species. Species resolution of this library was 74.4%, 90.2%, and 93.0% for rbcL, matK, and rbcL + matK, respectively. DNA barcoding revealed adulteration in about 20% of the raw drugs, and at least 6% of them were derived from plants with completely different medicinal or toxic properties. Raw drugs in the form of dried roots, powders, and whole plants were found to be more prone to adulteration than rhizomes, fruits, and seeds. Morphological resemblance, co-occurrence, mislabeling, confusing vernacular names, and unauthorized or fraudulent substitutions might have contributed to species adulteration in the raw drugs. Therefore, this library can be routinely used to authenticate traded raw drugs for the benefit of all stakeholders: traders, consumers, and regulatory agencies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stalin Nithaniyal
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India.,Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India
| | - Sophie Lorraine Vassou
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India.,Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India
| | - Sundar Poovitha
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India.,Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India
| | - Balaji Raju
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India.,Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India
| | - Madasamy Parani
- Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India.,Department of Genetic Engineering, Center for DNA Barcoding, SRM University, Kattankulathur 603203, India
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15
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Galimberti A, Spinelli S, Bruno A, Mezzasalma V, De Mattia F, Cortis P, Labra M. Evaluating the efficacy of restoration plantings through DNA barcoding of frugivorous bird diets. CONSERVATION BIOLOGY : THE JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR CONSERVATION BIOLOGY 2016; 30:763-773. [PMID: 26864475 DOI: 10.1111/cobi.12687] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Revised: 01/16/2016] [Accepted: 02/06/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Frugivores are critical components of restoration programs because they are seed dispersers. Thus, knowledge about bird-plant trophic relationships is essential in the evaluation of the efficacy of restoration processes. Traditionally, the diet of frugivores is characterized by microscopically identifying plant residues in droppings, which is time-consuming, requires botanical knowledge, and cannot be used for fragments lacking detectable morphological characteristics (e.g., fragmented seeds and skins). We examined whether DNA barcoding can be used as a universal tool to rapidly characterize the diet of a frugivorous bird, Eurasian blackcap (Sylvia atricapilla). We used the DNA barcoding results to assess restoration efforts and monitor the diversity of potentially dispersed plants in a protected area in northern Italy. We collected 642 Eurasian Blackcap droppings at the restored site during the autumn migration over 3 years. Intact seeds and fragmented plant material were analyzed at 2 plastidial barcode loci (rbcL and trnH-psbA), and the resulting plant identifications were validated by comparison with a reference molecular data set of local flora. At least 17 plant species, including 7 of the 11 newly transplanted taxa, were found. Our results demonstrate the potential for DNA barcoding to be used to monitor the effectiveness of restoration plantings and to obtain information about fruit consumption and dispersal of invasive or unexpected plant species. Such an approach provides valuable information that could be used to study local plant biodiversity and to survey its evolution over time.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Galimberti
- ZooPlantLab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.za Della Scienza 2, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - S Spinelli
- ZooPlantLab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.za Della Scienza 2, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - A Bruno
- ZooPlantLab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.za Della Scienza 2, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - V Mezzasalma
- ZooPlantLab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.za Della Scienza 2, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - F De Mattia
- FEM2-Ambiente s.r.l, P.za Della Scienza 2, 20126, Milan, Italy
| | - P Cortis
- Department of Life and Environmental Sciences, Macrosection of Botany and Botanic Garden, University of Cagliari, Viale S. Ignazio 13, 09123, Cagliari, Italy
| | - M Labra
- ZooPlantLab, Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.za Della Scienza 2, 20126, Milan, Italy
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16
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Oliveira AS, Fraga S, Carvalho F, Araújo AM, Pereira CC, Teixeira JP, de Lourdes Bastos M, de Pinho PG. Chemical characterization and in vitro cyto- and genotoxicity of ‘legal high’ products containing Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa). Forensic Toxicol 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-015-0305-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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17
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Nsuala BN, Enslin G, Viljoen A. "Wild cannabis": A review of the traditional use and phytochemistry of Leonotis leonurus. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2015; 174:520-539. [PMID: 26292023 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2015.08.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2015] [Revised: 08/14/2015] [Accepted: 08/15/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Leonotis leonurus, locally commonly known as "wilde dagga" (=wild cannabis), is traditionally used as a decoction, both topically and orally, in the treatment of a wide variety of conditions such as haemorrhoids, eczema, skin rashes, boils, itching, muscular cramps, headache, epilepsy, chest infections, constipation, spider and snake bites. The dried leaves and flowers are also smoked to relieve epilepsy. The leaves and flowers are reported to produce a mild euphoric effect when smoked and have been said to have a similar, although less potent, psychoactive effect to cannabis. AIM OF THE REVIEW To amalgamate the botanical aspects, ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, biological activity, toxicity and commercial aspects of the scientific literature available on L. leonurus. METHODS An extensive review of the literature from 1900 to 2015 was carried out. Electronic databases including Scopus, SciFinder, Pubmed, Google Scholar and Google were used as data sources. All abstracts, full-text articles and books written in English were considered. RESULTS The phytochemistry of particularly the non-volatile constituents of L. leonurus has been comprehensively investigated due to interest generated as a result of the wide variety of biological effects reported for this plant. More than 50 compounds have been isolated and characterised. L. leonurus contains mainly terpenoids, particularly labdane diterpenes, the major diterpene reported is marrubiin. Various other compounds have been reported by some authors to have been isolated from the plant, including, in the popular literature only, the mildly psychoactive alkaloid, leonurine. Leonurine has however, never been reported by any scientific analysis of the extracts of L. leonurus. CONCLUSION Despite the publication of various papers on L. leonurus, there is still, however, the need for definitive research and clarification of other compounds, including alkaloids and essential oils from L. leonurus, as well as from other plant parts, such as the roots which are extensively used in traditional medicine. The traditional use by smoking also requires further investigation as to how the chemistry and activity are affected by this form of administration. Research has proven the psychoactive effects of the crude extract of L. leonurus, but confirmation of the presence of psychoactive compounds, as well as isolation and characterization, is still required. Deliberate adulteration of L. leonurus with synthetic cannabinoids has been reported recently, in an attempt to facilitate the marketing of these illegal substances, highlighting the necessity for refinement of appropriate quality control processes to ensure safety and quality. Much work is therefore still required on the aspect of quality control to ensure safety, quality and efficacy of the product supplied to patients, as this plant is widely used in South Africa as a traditional medicine. Commercially available plant sources provide a viable option for phytochemical research, particularly with regard to the appropriate validation of the plant material (taxonomy) in order to identify and delimit closely related species such as L. leonurus and L. nepetifolia which are very similar in habit.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baudry N Nsuala
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
| | - Gill Enslin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa.
| | - Alvaro Viljoen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa; SAMRC Herbal Drugs Research Unit, Faculty of Science, Tshwane University of Technology, Private Bag X680, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa
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18
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Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK, Mansor SM. Social Functioning of Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) Users in Malaysia. J Psychoactive Drugs 2015; 47:125-31. [PMID: 25950592 DOI: 10.1080/02791072.2015.1012610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) is an indigenous plant known for its traditional medicinal use, and for its addiction potential, in Southeast Asia. In recent years, kratom and its major alkaloid, mitragynine, spread worldwide with largely unknown effects on behavior and mental health. Recent studies show that kratom use can lead to dependence and that mitragynine works as an addictive drug in animal studies. Nevertheless, kratom preparations were also suggested as a less harmful substitute in opiate withdrawal. Potential side-effects of prolonged kratom use, however, are currently unclear. The aim of this study was to investigate the social functioning of regular kratom users in Malaysia. A cross-sectional survey was carried out in three northern states of Peninsular Malaysia investigating 293 regular kratom consumers using the Addiction Severity Index in a snowball sampling technique. Findings showed that regular kratom users do not experience major impairments in their social functioning, despite being dependent on kratom for prolonged periods. Our findings suggest that chronic kratom administration does not significantly impair social functioning of users in a natural context in Malaysia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darshan Singh
- a Research Scientist, Centre for Drug Research , Universiti Sains Malaysia , Minden , Penang , Malaysia
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20
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Rapid detection by direct analysis in real time-mass spectrometry (DART-MS) of psychoactive plant drugs of abuse: The case of Mitragyna speciosa aka “Kratom”. Forensic Sci Int 2014; 242:210-218. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2014.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2014] [Revised: 06/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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21
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Singh D, Müller CP, Vicknasingam BK. Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) dependence, withdrawal symptoms and craving in regular users. Drug Alcohol Depend 2014; 139:132-7. [PMID: 24698080 DOI: 10.1016/j.drugalcdep.2014.03.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2014] [Revised: 03/05/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Kratom (Mitragyna speciosa) preparations have been traditionally used in Southeast Asia for its medicinal properties. Lately, Kratom use has spread to Europe and the US, where abuse potential and health hazards increasingly emerge. This study is the first to measure systematically Kratom dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and drug craving in regular Kratom users in Malaysia. METHODS A cross-sectional survey of 293 regular Kratom users was conducted in the community across three northern peninsular states of Malaysia. The Leeds Dependence Questionnaire, Marijuana Withdrawal Checklist, and Marijuana Craving Questionnaire-Short Form were used to measure Kratom dependence, withdrawal and craving. RESULTS More than half of the regular users (>6 month of use) developed severe Kratom dependence problems, while 45% showed a moderate Kratom dependence. Physical withdrawal symptoms commonly experienced include muscle spasms and pain, sleeping difficulty, watery eyes/nose, hot flashes, fever, decreased appetite, and diarrhoea. Psychological withdrawal symptoms commonly reported were restlessness, tension, anger, sadness, and nervousness. The average amount of the psychoactive compound, mitragynine, in a single dose of a Kratom drink was 79mg, suggesting an average daily intake of 276.5mg. Regular users who consumed ≥3 glasses Kratom per day, had higher odds of developing severe Kratom dependence, withdrawal symptoms, and inability to control Kratom craving. CONCLUSIONS The findings from this study show that regular Kratom use is associated with drug dependency, development of withdrawal symptoms, and craving. These symptoms become more severe with prolonged use and suggest a stronger control of the drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Darshan Singh
- Centre for Drug Research, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Minden, Penang, Malaysia
| | - Christian P Müller
- Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, University Clinic, Friedrich-Alexander-University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Schwabachanlage 6, 91054 Erlangen, Germany.
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22
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Wang M, Carrell EJ, Ali Z, Avula B, Avonto C, Parcher JF, Khan IA. Comparison of three chromatographic techniques for the detection of mitragynine and other indole and oxindole alkaloids in Mitragyna speciosa (kratom) plants. J Sep Sci 2014; 37:1411-8. [PMID: 24659356 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.201301389] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Leaves of the Southeast Asian plant Mitragyna speciosa are used to suppress pain and mitigate opioid withdrawal syndromes. The potential threat of abuse and ready availability of this uncontrolled psychoactive plant have led to the need for improved analytical techniques for the detection of the major active components, mitragynine and 7-hydroxymitragynine. Three independent chromatographic methods coupled to two detection systems, GC with MS, supercritical fluid chromatography with diode array detection, and HPLC with MS and diode array detection, were compared for the analysis of mitragynine and other indole and oxindole alkaloids in M. speciosa plants. The indole alkaloids included two sets of diastereoisomers: (i) paynantheine and 3-isopaynantheine and (ii) mitragynine, speciogynine, and speciociliatine. Two oxindole alkaloid diastereoisomers, corynoxine and corynoxine B, were also studied. The HPLC and supercritical fluid chromatography methods successfully resolved the major components with slightly different elution orders. The GC method was less satisfactory because it was unable to resolve mitragynine and speciociliatine. This separation was difficult by GC with a liquid stationary phase because these diastereoisomers differ only in the orientation of an interior hydrogen atom. The observed lack of resolution of the indole alkaloid diastereoisomers coupled with the likeness of the mass and tandem mass spectra, calls into question proposed GC methods for the analysis of mitragynine based on solely GC with MS separation and identification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei Wang
- National Center for Natural Products Research, University of Mississippi, University, MS, USA
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Szewczyk K, Zidorn C. Ethnobotany, phytochemistry, and bioactivity of the genus Turnera (Passifloraceae) with a focus on damiana--Turnera diffusa. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2014; 152:424-43. [PMID: 24468305 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2014.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2013] [Revised: 01/06/2014] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Half a dozen of the currently accepted 135 Turnera species are used in traditional medicine, most notably Turnera diffusa Willd. ex Schult. which is one of the most highly appreciated plant aphrodisiacs. Other traditional uses of Turnera L. species include the treatment of anaemia, bronchitis, cough, diabetes, fever, fungal disease, gastrointestinal complaints, pain, pulmonary and respiratory diseases, skin disorders, and women׳s health problems. Additionally, Turnera species are used as abortives, expectorants, and laxatives. PHYTOCHEMISTRY Flavonoids (22 different compounds), maltol glucoside, phenolics, cyanogenic glycosides (7 different compounds), monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, triterpenoids, the polyterpene ficaprenol-11, fatty acids, and caffeine have been found in the genus Turnera. BIOACTIVITY Bioactivities experimentally proven for members of the genus Turnera encompass antianxiety, antiaromatase, antibacterial including antimycobacterial, antidiabetic, antioxidant, adapatogenic, antiobesity, antispasmodic, cytotoxic, gastroprotective, hepatoprotective, and aphrodisiac activities. Most of these activities have so far been investigated only in chemical, cell based, or animal assays. In contrast, the antiobesity activity was also investigated in a study on healthy human subjects and with a herbal preparation containing among other ingredients Turnera diffusa leaves. Moreover, the enhancement of female sexual function was assessed in humans; again the product contained besides Turnera diffusa other potentially bioactive ingredients. However, with only few exceptions, most of the traditional uses and the experimentally verified bioactivities can currently not be related to a particular compound or compound class. A notable exception is the flavonoid apigenin, which was identified animal experiments as the antinociceptive principle of Turnera diffusa. CONCLUSION In this review, the current knowledge on ethnobotanical uses of members of the genus Turnera, the secondary metabolites reported from Turnera, and experimentally documented bioactivities from Turnera extracts and pure compounds derived from Turnera extracts are compiled. Moreover, some of the most interesting avenues for future research projects are being discussed briefly. These include in particular the aphrodisiac activity of Turnera diffusa and the antibiotic activity potentiating effect of Turnera ulmifolia L. against aminoglycoside resistant bacteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Szewczyk
- Chair and Department of Pharmaceutical Botany, Medical University of Lublin, Chodźki 1 St, 20-093 Lublin, Poland
| | - Christian Zidorn
- Institut für Pharmazie der Universität Innsbruck, Abteilung Pharmakognosie, Innrain 80/82, A-6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
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Newmaster SG, Grguric M, Shanmughanandhan D, Ramalingam S, Ragupathy S. DNA barcoding detects contamination and substitution in North American herbal products. BMC Med 2013; 11:222. [PMID: 24120035 PMCID: PMC3851815 DOI: 10.1186/1741-7015-11-222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 275] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2013] [Accepted: 09/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Herbal products available to consumers in the marketplace may be contaminated or substituted with alternative plant species and fillers that are not listed on the labels. According to the World Health Organization, the adulteration of herbal products is a threat to consumer safety. Our research aimed to investigate herbal product integrity and authenticity with the goal of protecting consumers from health risks associated with product substitution and contamination. METHODS We used DNA barcoding to conduct a blind test of the authenticity for (i) 44 herbal products representing 12 companies and 30 different species of herbs, and (ii) 50 leaf samples collected from 42 herbal species. Our laboratory also assembled the first standard reference material (SRM) herbal barcode library from 100 herbal species of known provenance that were used to identify the unknown herbal products and leaf samples. RESULTS We recovered DNA barcodes from most herbal products (91%) and all leaf samples (100%), with 95% species resolution using a tiered approach (rbcL + ITS2). Most (59%) of the products tested contained DNA barcodes from plant species not listed on the labels. Although we were able to authenticate almost half (48%) of the products, one-third of these also contained contaminants and or fillers not listed on the label. Product substitution occurred in 30/44 of the products tested and only 2/12 companies had products without any substitution, contamination or fillers. Some of the contaminants we found pose serious health risks to consumers. CONCLUSIONS Most of the herbal products tested were of poor quality, including considerable product substitution, contamination and use of fillers. These activities dilute the effectiveness of otherwise useful remedies, lowering the perceived value of all related products because of a lack of consumer confidence in them. We suggest that the herbal industry should embrace DNA barcoding for authenticating herbal products through testing of raw materials used in manufacturing products. The use of an SRM DNA herbal barcode library for testing bulk materials could provide a method for 'best practices? in the manufacturing of herbal products. This would provide consumers with safe, high quality herbal products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Steven G Newmaster
- Centre for Biodiversity Genomics, Biodiversity Institute of Ontario (BIO), University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Meghan Grguric
- Bachelor of Arts and Science Program, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
| | - Dhivya Shanmughanandhan
- Plant Genetic Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Sathishkumar Ramalingam
- Plant Genetic Engineering Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Bharathiar University, Coimbatore 641 046, Tamil Nadu, India
| | - Subramanyam Ragupathy
- Centre for Biodiversity Genomics, Biodiversity Institute of Ontario (BIO), University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario N1G 2W1, Canada
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