Neuronal expression of peripherin, a type III intermediate filament protein, in the mouse hindbrain

Factors Governing B Cell Recognition of Autoantigen and Function in Type 1 Diabetes

Islet autoantibodies predict type 1 diabetes (T1D) but can be transient in murine and human T1D and are not thought to be directly pathogenic. Rather, these autoantibodies signal B cell activity as antigen-presenting cells (APCs) that present islet autoantigen to diabetogenic T cells to promote T1D pathogenesis. Disrupting B cell APC function prevents T1D in mouse models and has shown promise in clinical trials. Autoantigen-specific B cells thus hold potential as sophisticated T1D biomarkers and therapeutic targets. B cell receptor (BCR) somatic hypermutation is a mechanism by which B cells increase affinity for islet autoantigen. High-affinity B and T cell responses are selected in protective immune responses, but immune tolerance mechanisms are known to censor highly autoreactive clones in autoimmunity, including T1D. Thus, different selection rules often apply to autoimmune disease settings (as opposed to protective host immunity), where different autoantigen affinity ceilings are tolerated based on variations in host genetics and environment. This review will explore what is currently known regarding B cell signaling, selection, and interaction with T cells to promote T1D pathogenesis.

Peripherin: A proposed biomarker of traumatic axonal injury triggered by mechanical force

Traumatic axonal injury (TAI) is one of the most common pathological features of severe traumatic brain injury (TBI). Our previous study using proteomics suggested that peripherin (PRPH) should be a potential candidate as a biomarker for TAI diagnosis. This study is to further elucidate the role and association of PRPH with TAI. In the animal study, we performed immunohistochemistry, ELISA and morphological analysis to evaluate PRPH level and distribution following a severe impact. PRPH-positive regions were widely distributed in the axonal tract throughout the whole brain. Axonal injuries with PRPH inclusion were observed post-TBI. Besides, PRPH was significantly increased in both cerebral spinal fluid and plasma at the early phase post-TBI. Colocalization analysis based on microscopy revealed that PRPH represents an immunohistological biomarker in the neuropathological diagnosis of TAI. Brain samples from patients with TBI were included to further test whether PRPH is feasible in the real practice of neuropathology. Immunohistochemistry of PRPH, NFH, APP and NFL on human brain tissues further confirmed PRPH as an immunohistological biomarker that could be applied in practice. Collectively, we conclude that PRPH mirrors the cytoskeleton injury of axons and could represent a neuropathological biomarker for TAI.

The Efficiency of Direct Maturation: the Comparison of Two hiPSC Differentiation Approaches into Motor Neurons

Motor neurons (MNs) derived from human-induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSC) hold great potential for the treatment of various motor neurodegenerative diseases as transplantations with a low-risk of rejection are made possible. There are many hiPSC differentiation protocols that pursue to imitate the multistep process of motor neurogenesis in vivo. However, these often apply viral vectors, feeder cells, or antibiotics to generate hiPSC and MNs, limiting their translational potential. In this study, a virus-, feeder-, and antibiotic-free method was used for reprogramming hiPSC, which were maintained in culture medium produced under clinical good manufacturing practice. Differentiation into MNs was performed with standardized, chemically defined, and antibiotic-free culture media. The identity of hiPSC, neuronal progenitors, and mature MNs was continuously verified by the detection of specific markers at the genetic and protein level via qRT-PCR, flow cytometry, Western Blot, and immunofluorescence. MNX1- and ChAT-positive motoneuronal progenitor cells were formed after neural induction via dual-SMAD inhibition and expansion. For maturation, an approach aiming to directly mature these progenitors was compared to an approach that included an additional differentiation step for further specification. Although both approaches generated mature MNs expressing characteristic postmitotic markers, the direct maturation approach appeared to be more efficient. These results provide new insights into the suitability of two standardized differentiation approaches for generating mature MNs, which might pave the way for future clinical applications.

Noise-induced hearing loss vulnerability in type III intermediate filament peripherin gene knockout mice

In the post-natal mouse cochlea, type II spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) innervating the electromotile outer hair cells (OHCs) of the ‘cochlear amplifier' selectively express the type III intermediate filament peripherin gene (Prph). Immunolabeling showed that Prph knockout (KO) mice exhibited disruption of this (outer spiral bundle) afferent innervation, while the radial fiber (type I SGN) innervation of the inner hair cells (~95% of the SGN population) was retained. Functionality of the medial olivocochlear (MOC) efferent innervation of the OHCs was confirmed in the PrphKO, based on suppression of distortion product otoacoustic emissions (DPOAEs) via direct electrical stimulation. However, “contralateral suppression” of the MOC reflex neural circuit, evident as a rapid reduction in cubic DPOAE when noise is presented to the opposite ear in wildtype mice, was substantially disrupted in the PrphKO. Auditory brainstem response (ABR) measurements demonstrated that hearing sensitivity (thresholds and growth-functions) were indistinguishable between wildtype and PrphKO mice. Despite this comparability in sound transduction and strength of the afferent signal to the central auditory pathways, high-intensity, broadband noise exposure (108 dB SPL, 1 h) produced permanent high frequency hearing loss (24–32 kHz) in PrphKO mice but not the wildtype mice, consistent with the attenuated contralateral suppression of the PrphKO. These data support the postulate that auditory neurons expressing Prph contribute to the sensory arm of the otoprotective MOC feedback circuit.

Changes in the Gene Expression Profiles of the Inferior Colliculus Following Unilateral Cochlear Ablation in Adult Rats

This study aimed to explore gene expression changes in the inferior colliculus (IC) after single-sided deafness (SSD). Forty 8-week-old female Sprague-Dawley rats were used. Twenty rats underwent right-side cochlear ablation, and IC tissues were harvested after 2 weeks (SSD 2-week group). Twenty rats underwent a sham operation and were sacrificed after 2 weeks (control group). Both sides of the IC were analyzed using a gene expression array. Pathway analyses were performed on genes that were differentially expressed compared with their levels in the control group. The expression levels of genes involved in the candidate pathways were confirmed using reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Among the genes with ≥ 1.5-fold changes in expression levels and P < 0.05, there were 7 and 9 genes with increased and decreased expression, respectively, in the ipsilateral IC and 10 and 12 genes with increased and decreased expression, respectively, in the contralateral IC. The pathway analysis did not identify significantly related pathway. In the bilateral analysis, a total of 14 genes were ≥ 1.3-fold downregulated in both the ipsilateral and contralateral IC in the SSD 2-week group compared with their expression in the control group. Pathway analyses of these 14 genes included 7 genes, namely, amine compound solute carrier (Slc)5a7; Slc18a3; Slc6a5; synaptic vesicle glycoprotein 2C (Sv2c); S100 calcium binding protein A10 (S100a10); a gene with sequence similarity to family 111, member A (Fam111a); and peripherin (Prph), that were related to the acetylcholine neurotransmitter release cycle, SLC transporters, and the neurotransmitter release cycle pathways. RT-PCR showed reduced expression of Slc5a7, Sv2c, and Prph in the contralateral IC and Slc18a3 and Slc6a5 in the ipsilateral IC of the SSD 2-week group compared with that in the control group.

The mammalian efferent vestibular system utilizes cholinergic mechanisms to excite primary vestibular afferents

Electrical stimulation of the mammalian efferent vestibular system (EVS) predominantly excites primary vestibular afferents along two distinct time scales. Although roles for acetylcholine (ACh) have been demonstrated in other vertebrates, synaptic mechanisms underlying mammalian EVS actions are not well-characterized. To determine if activation of ACh receptors account for efferent-mediated afferent excitation in mammals, we recorded afferent activity from the superior vestibular nerve of anesthetized C57BL/6 mice while stimulating EVS neurons in the brainstem, before and after administration of cholinergic antagonists. Using a normalized coefficient of variation (CV*), we broadly classified vestibular afferents as regularly- (CV* < 0.1) or irregularly-discharging (CV* > 0.1) and characterized their responses to midline or ipsilateral EVS stimulation. Afferent responses to efferent stimulation were predominantly excitatory, grew in amplitude with increasing CV*, and consisted of fast and slow components that could be identified by differences in rise time and post-stimulus duration. Both efferent-mediated excitatory components were larger in irregular afferents with ipsilateral EVS stimulation. Our pharmacological data show, for the first time in mammals, that muscarinic AChR antagonists block efferent-mediated slow excitation whereas the nicotinic AChR antagonist DHβE selectively blocks efferent-mediated fast excitation, while leaving the efferent-mediated slow component intact. These data confirm that mammalian EVS actions are predominantly cholinergic.

Rnf220/Zc4h2-mediated monoubiquitylation of Phox2 is required for noradrenergic neuron development

Noradrenaline belongs to the monoamine system and is involved in cognition and emotional behaviors. Phox2a and Phox2b play essential but non-redundant roles during development of the locus coeruleus (LC), the main noradrenergic (NA) neuron center in the mammalian brain. The ubiquitin E3 ligase Rnf220 and its cofactor Zc4h2 participate in ventral neural tube patterning by modulating Shh/Gli signaling, and ZC4H2 mutation is associated with intellectual disability, although the mechanisms for this remain poorly understood. Here, we report that Zc4h2 and Rnf220 are required for the development of central NA neurons in the mouse brain. Both Zc4h2 and Rnf220 are expressed in developing LC-NA neurons. Although properly initiated at E10.5, the expression of genes associated with LC-NA neurons is not maintained at the later embryonic stages in mice with a deficiency of either Rnf220 or Zc4h2 In addition, we show that the Rnf220/Zc4h2 complex monoubiquitylates Phox2a/Phox2b, a process required for the full transcriptional activity of Phox2a/Phox2b. Our work reveals a role for Rnf220/Zc4h2 in regulating LC-NA neuron development, and this finding may be helpful for understanding the pathogenesis of ZC4H2 mutation-associated intellectual disability.

Loss of Axon Bifurcation in Mesencephalic Trigeminal Neurons Impairs the Maximal Biting Force in Npr2-Deficient Mice

Bifurcation of axons from dorsal root ganglion (DRG) and cranial sensory ganglion (CSG) neurons is mediated by a cGMP-dependent signaling pathway composed of the ligand C-type natriuretic peptide (CNP), the receptor guanylyl cyclase Npr2 and the cGMP-dependent protein kinase I (cGKI). Here, we demonstrate that mesencephalic trigeminal neurons (MTN) which are the only somatosensory neurons whose cell bodies are located within the CNS co-express Npr2 and cGKI. Afferents of MTNs form Y-shaped branches in rhombomere 2 where the ligand CNP is expressed. Analyzing mouse mutants deficient for CNP or Npr2 we found that in the absence of CNP-induced cGMP signaling MTN afferents no longer bifurcate and instead extend either into the trigeminal root or caudally in the hindbrain. Since MTNs provide sensory information from jaw closing muscles and periodontal ligaments we measured the bite force of conditional mouse mutants of Npr2 (Npr2^flox/flox;Engr1^Cre ) that lack bifurcation of MTN whereas the bifurcation of trigeminal afferents is normal. Our study revealed that the maximal biting force of both sexes is reduced in Npr2^flox/flox;Engr1^Cre mice as compared to their Npr2^flox/flox littermate controls. In conclusion sensory feedback mechanisms from jaw closing muscles or periodontal ligaments might be impaired in the absence of MTN axon bifurcation.

B-lymphocytes expressing an Ig specificity recognizing the pancreatic ß-cell autoantigen peripherin are potent contributors to type 1 diabetes development in NOD mice

While the autoimmune destruction of pancreatic ß-cells underlying type 1 diabetes (1D) development is ultimately mediated by T-cells in NOD mice and also likely humans, B-lymphocytes play an additional key pathogenic role. It appears expression of plasma membrane bound immunoglobulin (Ig) molecules that efficiently capture ß-cell antigens allows autoreactive B-lymphocytes bypassing normal tolerance induction processes to be the subset of antigen presenting cells most efficiently activating diabetogenic T-cells. NOD mice transgenically expressing Ig molecules recognizing antigens that are (insulin) or not (hen egg lysozyme; HEL) expressed by ß-cells have proven useful in dissecting the developmental basis of diabetogenic B-lymphocytes. However, these transgenic Ig specificities were originally selected for their ability to recognize insulin or HEL as foreign, rather than autoantigens. Thus, we generated and characterized NOD mice transgenically expressing an Ig molecule representative of a large proportion of naturally occurring islet-infiltrating B-lymphocytes in NOD mice recognizing the neuronal antigen peripherin. Transgenic peripherin autoreactive B-lymphocytes infiltrate NOD pancreatic islets, acquire an activated proliferative phenotype, and potently support accelerated T1D development. These results support the concept of neuronal autoimmunity as a pathogenic feature of T1D, and targeting such responses could ultimately provide an effective disease intervention approach.

Type II spiral ganglion afferent neurons drive medial olivocochlear reflex suppression of the cochlear amplifier

The dynamic adjustment of hearing sensitivity and frequency selectivity is mediated by the medial olivocochlear efferent reflex, which suppresses the gain of the ‘cochlear amplifier' in each ear. Such efferent feedback is important for promoting discrimination of sounds in background noise, sound localization and protecting the cochleae from acoustic overstimulation. However, the sensory driver for the olivocochlear reflex is unknown. Here, we resolve this longstanding question using a mouse model null for the gene encoding the type III intermediate filament peripherin (Prph). Prph^(−/−) mice lacked type II spiral ganglion neuron innervation of the outer hair cells, whereas innervation of the inner hair cells by type I spiral ganglion neurons was normal. Compared with Prph^(+/+) controls, both contralateral and ipsilateral olivocochlear efferent-mediated suppression of the cochlear amplifier were absent in Prph^(−/−) mice, demonstrating that outer hair cells and their type II afferents constitute the sensory drive for the olivocochlear efferent reflex.

The medial olivocochlear efferent reflex regulates cochlear outer hair cell-based amplification of sound energy. Here the authors show this dynamic control of hearing sensitivity is driven by sensory input from the outer hair cells and their type II spiral ganglion neuron innervation.

Prenatal expression of MET receptor tyrosine kinase in the fetal mouse dorsal raphe nuclei and the visceral motor/sensory brainstem

Signaling via MET receptor tyrosine kinase (MET) has been implicated in a number of neurodevelopmental events, including cell migration, dendritic and axonal development and synaptogenesis. Related to its role in the development of forebrain circuitry, we recently identified a functional promoter variant of the MET gene that is associated with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). The association of the MET promoter variant rs1858830 C allele is significantly enriched in families with a child who has ASD and co-occurring gastrointestinal conditions. The expression of MET in the forebrain had been mapped in detail in the developing mouse and rhesus macaque. However, in mammals, its expression in the developing brainstem has not been studied extensively throughout developmental stages. Brainstem and autonomic circuitry are implicated in ASD pathophysiology and in gastrointestinal dysfunction. To advance our understanding of the neurodevelopmental influences of MET signaling in brainstem circuitry development, we employed in situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry to map the expression of Met and its ligand, Hgf, through prenatal development of the mouse midbrain and hindbrain. Our results reveal a highly selective expression pattern of Met in the brainstem, including a subpopulation of neurons in cranial motor nuclei (nVII, nA and nXII), B6 subgroup of the dorsal raphe, Barrington's nucleus, and a small subset of neurons in the nucleus of solitary tract. In contrast to Met, neither full-length nor known splice variants of Hgf were localized in the prenatal brainstem. RT-PCR revealed Hgf expression in target tissues of Met-expressing brainstem neurons, suggesting that MET in these neurons may be activated by HGF from peripheral sources. Together, these data suggest that MET signaling may influence the development of neurons that are involved in central regulation of gastrointestinal function, tongue movement, swallowing, speech, stress and mood.

Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2B disease-causing RAB7A mutant proteins show altered interaction with the neuronal intermediate filament peripherin

Charcot-Marie-Tooth type 2B (CMT2B) is a peripheral ulcero-mutilating neuropathy caused by four missense mutations in the rab7a gene. CMT2B is clinically characterized by prominent sensory loss, distal muscle weakness leading to muscle atrophy, high frequency of foot ulcers and infections that often results in toe amputations. RAB7A is a ubiquitous small GTPase, which controls transport to late endocytic compartments. Although the biochemical and functional properties of disease-causing RAB7A mutant proteins have been investigated, it is not yet clear how the disease originates. To understand how mutations in a ubiquitous protein specifically affect peripheral neurons, we performed a two-hybrid screen using a dorsal root ganglia cDNA library with the purpose of identifying RAB7A interactors specific for these cells. We identified peripherin, an intermediate filament protein expressed primarily in peripheral neurons, as a putative RAB7A interacting protein. The interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation and pull-down experiments, and established that the interaction is direct using recombinant proteins. Silencing or overexpression of wild type RAB7A changed the soluble/insoluble rate of peripherin indicating that RAB7A is important for peripherin organization and function. In addition, disease-causing RAB7A mutant proteins bind more strongly to peripherin and their expression causes a significant increase in the amount of soluble peripherin. Since peripherin plays a role not only in neurite outgrowth during development but also in axonal regeneration after injury, these data suggest that the altered interaction between disease-causing RAB7A mutants and peripherin could play an important role in CMT2B neuropathy.

Synaptic profiles during neurite extension, refinement and retraction in the developing cochlea

Background

During development, excess synapses form between the central and peripheral nervous systems that are then eliminated to achieve correct connectivity. In the peripheral auditory system, the developing type I spiral ganglion afferent fibres undergo a dramatic re-organisation, initially forming connections with both sensory inner hair cells (IHCs) and outer hair cells (OHCs). The OHC connections are then selectively eliminated, leaving sparse innervation by type II afferent fibres, whilst the type I afferent synapses with IHCs are consolidated.

Results

We examined the molecular makeup of the synaptic contacts formed onto the IHCs and OHCs during this period of afferent fibre remodelling. We observed that presynaptic ribbons initially form at all the afferent neurite contacts, i.e. not only at the expected developing IHC-type I fibre synapses but also at OHCs where type I fibres temporarily contact. Moreover, the transient contacts forming onto OHCs possess a broad set of pre- and postsynaptic proteins, suggesting that functional synaptic connections are formed prior to the removal of type I fibre innervation. AMPA-type glutamate receptor subunits were transiently observed at the base of the OHCs, with their downregulation occurring in parallel with the withdrawal of type I fibres, dispersal of presynaptic ribbons, and downregulation of the anchoring proteins Bassoon and Shank. Conversely, at developing type I afferent IHC synapses, the presence of pre- and postsynaptic scaffold proteins was maintained, with differential plasticity in AMPA receptor subunits observed and AMPA receptor subunit composition changing around hearing onset.

Conclusions

Overall our data show a differential balance in the patterns of synaptic proteins at developing afferent IHC versus OHC synapses that likely reflect their stable versus transient fates.

Onecut factors control development of the Locus Coeruleus and of the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus

The Locus Coeruleus (LC), the main noradrenergic nucleus in the vertebrate CNS, contributes to the regulation of several processes including arousal, sleep, adaptative behaviors and stress. Regulators controlling the formation of the LC have been identified but factors involved in its maintenance remain unknown. Here, we show that members of the Onecut (OC) family of transcription factors, namely HNF-6, OC-2 and OC-3, are required for maintenance of the LC phenotype. Indeed, in embryos lacking any OC proteins, LC neurons properly differentiate but abnormally migrate and eventually lose their noradrenergic characteristics. Surprisingly, the expression of Oc genes in these neurons is restricted to the earliest differentiation stages, suggesting that OC factors may regulate maintenance of the LC in a non cell-autonomous manner. Accordingly, the OC factors are present throughout development in a population directly adjacent to the LC, the rhombencephalic portion of the mesencephalic trigeminal nucleus (MTN). In the absence of OC factors, rhombencephalic MTN neurons fail to be generated, suggesting that OC proteins cell-autonomously control their production. Hence, we propose that OC factors are required at early developmental stages for differentiation of the MTN neurons that are in turn necessary for maintenance of the LC.

Type I vs type II spiral ganglion neurons exhibit differential survival and neuritogenesis during cochlear development

Background

The mechanisms that consolidate neural circuitry are a major focus of neuroscience. In the mammalian cochlea, the refinement of spiral ganglion neuron (SGN) innervation to the inner hair cells (by type I SGNs) and the outer hair cells (by type II SGNs) is accompanied by a 25% loss of SGNs.

Results

We investigated the segregation of neuronal loss in the mouse cochlea using β-tubulin and peripherin antisera to immunolabel all SGNs and selectively type II SGNs, respectively, and discovered that it is the type II SGN population that is predominately lost within the first postnatal week. Developmental neuronal loss has been attributed to the decline in neurotrophin expression by the target hair cells during this period, so we next examined survival of SGN sub-populations using tissue culture of the mid apex-mid turn region of neonatal mouse cochleae. In organotypic culture for 48 hours from postnatal day 1, endogenous trophic support from the organ of Corti proved sufficient to maintain all type II SGNs; however, a large proportion of type I SGNs were lost. Culture of the spiral ganglion as an explant, with removal of the organ of Corti, led to loss of the majority of both SGN sub-types. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) added as a supplement to the media rescued a significant proportion of the SGNs, particularly the type II SGNs, which also showed increased neuritogenesis. The known decline in BDNF production by the rodent sensory epithelium after birth is therefore a likely mediator of type II neuron apoptosis.

Conclusion

Our study thus indicates that BDNF supply from the organ of Corti supports consolidation of type II innervation in the neonatal mouse cochlea. In contrast, type I SGNs likely rely on additional sources for trophic support.

Type III intermediate filament peripherin inhibits neuritogenesis in type II spiral ganglion neurons in vitro

Peripherin, a type III intermediate filament protein, forms part of the cytoskeleton in a subset of neurons, most of which have peripheral fibre projections. Studies suggest a role for peripherin in axon outgrowth and regeneration, but evidence for this in sensory and brain tissues is limited. The exclusive expression of peripherin in a sub-population of primary auditory neurons, the type II spiral ganglion neurons (SGN) prompted our investigation of the effect of peripherin gene deletion (pphKO) on these neurons. We used confocal immunofluorescence to examine the establishment of the innervation of the cochlear outer hair cells by the type II SGN neurites in vivo and in vitro, in wildtype (WT) and pphKO mice, in the first postnatal week. The distribution of the type II SGN nerve fibres was normal in pphKO cochleae. However, using P1 spiral ganglion explants under culture conditions where the majority of neurites were derived from type II SGN, pphKO resulted in increased numbers of neurites/explant compared to WT controls. Type II SGN neurites from pphKO explants extended approximately double the distance of WT neurites, and had reduced complexity based on greater distance between turning points. Addition of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) to the culture media increased neurite number in WT and KO explants approximately 30-fold, but did not affect neurite length or distance between turning. These results indicate that peripherin may interact with other cytoskeletal elements to regulate outgrowth of the peripheral neurites of type II SGN, distinguishing these neurons from the type I SGN innervating the inner hair cells.

State-of-the-art technologies, current opinions and developments, and novel findings: news from the field of histochemistry and cell biology

Investigations of cell and tissue structure and function using innovative methods and approaches have again yielded numerous exciting findings in recent months and have added important data to current knowledge, inspiring new ideas and hypotheses in various fields of modern life sciences. Topics and contents of comprehensive expert reviews covering different aspects in methodological advances, cell biology, tissue function and morphology, and novel findings reported in original papers are summarized in the present review.

Espin actin-cytoskeletal proteins are in rat type I spiral ganglion neurons and include splice-isoforms with a functional nuclear localization signal

The espins are Ca(2+)-resistant actin-bundling proteins that are enriched in hair cell stereocilia and sensory cell microvilli. Here, we report a novel localization of espins to a large proportion of rat type I spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) and their projections to the cochlear nucleus (CN). Moreover, we show that a fraction of these espins is in the nucleus of SGNs owing to the presence of splice-isoforms that contain a functional nuclear localization signal (NLS). Espin antibody labeled approximately 83% of type I SGNs, and the labeling intensity increased dramatically during early postnatal development. Type II SGNs and vestibular ganglion neurons were unlabeled. In the CN, espin-positive auditory nerve fibers showed a projection pattern typical of type I SGNs, with intense labeling in the nerve root region and posteroventral CN (PVCN). The anteroventral CN (AVCN) showed moderate labeling, whereas the dorsal CN showed weak labeling that was restricted to the deep layer. Espin-positive synaptic terminals were enriched around nerve root neurons and octopus cells in the PVCN and were also found on globular bushy cells and multipolar neurons in the PVCN and AVCN. SGNs expressed multiple espin transcripts and proteins, including splice-isoforms that contain a nonapeptide, which is rich in positively charged amino acids and creates a bipartite NLS. The nonapeptide was necessary to target espin isoforms to the nucleus and was sufficient to target an unrelated protein to the nucleus when joined with the upstream di-arginine-containing octapeptide. The presence of cytoplasmic and nuclear espins in SGNs suggests additional roles for espins in auditory neuroscience.

The type III neurofilament peripherin is expressed in the tuberomammillary neurons of the mouse

BACKGROUND

Peripherin, a type III neuronal intermediate filament, is widely expressed in neurons of the peripheral nervous system and in selected central nervous system hindbrain areas with projections towards peripheral structures, such as cranial nerves and spinal cord neurons. Peripherin appears to play a role in neurite elongation during development and axonal regeneration, but its exact function is not known. We noticed high peripherin expression in the posterior hypothalamus of mice, and decided to investigate further the exact location of expression and function of peripherin in the mouse posterior hypothalamus.

RESULTS

In situ hybridization indicated expression of peripherin in neurons with a distribution reminiscent of the histaminergic neurons, with little signal in any other part of the forebrain. Immunocytochemical staining for histidine decarboxylase and peripherin revealed extensive colocalization, showing that peripherin is produced by histaminergic neurons in all parts of the tuberomammillary nucleus. We next used histamine immunostaining in peripherin knockout, overexpressing and wild type mice to study if altered peripherin expression affects these neurons, but could not detect any visible difference in the appearance of these neurons or their axons. Peripherin knockout mice and heterozygotic littermates were used for measurement of locomotor activity, feeding, drinking, and energy expenditure. Both genotypes displayed diurnal rhythms with all the parameters higher during the dark period. The respiratory quotient, an indicator of the type of substrate being utilized, also exhibited a significant diurnal rhythm in both genotypes. The diurnal patterns and the average values of all the recorded parameters for 24 h, daytime and night time were not significantly different between the genotypes, however.

CONCLUSION

In conclusion, we have shown that peripherin is expressed in the tuberomammillary neurons of the mouse hypothalamus. Monitoring of locomotor activity, feeding, drinking, and energy expenditure in mice either lacking or overexpressing peripherin did not reveal any difference, so the significance of peripherin in these neurons remains to be determined. The complete overlap between histidine decarboxylase and peripherin, both the protein and its mRNA, renders peripherin a useful new marker for histaminergic neurons in the hypothalamus.

Recent progress in histochemistry

The progress in discerning the structure and function of cells and tissues in health and disease has been achieved to a large extent by the continued development of new reagents for histochemistry, the improvement of existing techniques and new imaging techniques. This review will highlight some advancements made in these fields.