Exposure to pesticides and heavy work in greenhouses during pregnancy: does it effect birth weight?

Pesticide exposure and child growth in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

In low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), pesticides are widely used in agricultural and residential settings. Little is known about how pesticides affect child growth.

OBJECTIVES

To systematically review and synthesise the evidence on the associations between pesticide exposure and adverse birth outcomes and/or impaired postnatal growth in children up to 5 years of age in LMICs.

METHODS

We searched 10 databases from inception through November 2021. We included cohort and cross-sectional studies investigating associations between self-reported or measured prenatal or postnatal pesticide exposure and child growth (postnatal child linear/ponderal growth, and/or birth outcomes). Two researchers screened studies, extracted data, and assessed certainty using GRADE. The protocol was preregistered with PROSPERO (CRD42021292919).

RESULTS

Of 939 records retrieved, 31 studies met inclusion criteria (11 cohort, 20 cross-sectional). All studies assessed prenatal exposure. Twenty-four studies reported on birth weight. Four found positive associations with organochlorines (0.01-0.25 standardised mean difference (SMD)) and two found negative associations (-0.009 SMD to -55 g). Negative associations with organophosphates (-170 g, n = 1) and pyrethroids (-97 to -233 g, n = 2) were also documented. Two (out of 15) studies reporting on birth length found positive associations with organochlorines (0.21-0.25 SMD) and one found negative associations (-0.25 to -0.32 SMD). Organophosphate exposure was negatively associated with birth length (-0.37 cm, n = 1). Organophosphate exposure was also associated with higher risk/prevalence of low birth weight (2 out of nine studies) and preterm birth (2 out of six studies). Certainty of the evidence was "very low" for all outcomes.

CONCLUSION

The limited literature from LMICs shows inconclusive associations between prenatal pesticide exposure, child growth, and birth outcomes. Studies with accurate quantitative data on exposure to commonly used pesticides in LMICs using consistent methodologies in comparable populations are needed to better understand how pesticides influence child growth.

Associations of birth outcomes with air pollution and land use characteristics in the Greater Taipei Area

BACKGROUND

Understanding the effects of environmental factors on birth outcomes is crucial for public health because newborns' birth size affects their likelihood of childhood survival, risk of perinatal morbidity, and subsequent health and growth. Therefore, we investigated the associations of birth outcomes with prenatal air pollutant exposure and residential land use characteristics in the Greater Taipei Area.

METHODS

Participants were selected from the Longitudinal Examination across Prenatal and Postpartum Health in Taiwan study, which is an ongoing prospective study launched in July 2011. Parental sociodemographic data and medical histories were collected using standardized questionnaires. Mean air pollutant levels during each trimester were estimated using the spatial interpolation technique (Ordinary Kriging). Land use types surrounding participants' homes were evaluated within a designated radius of their residential addresses. We used multiple regressions to examine relationships between birth outcomes (i.e., birth weight, height, and head circumference) and environmental factors after adjustment for parental characteristics.

RESULTS

A total of 436 pregnant women-infant pairs were included. Birth weight was negatively associated with commercial land and greenhouse areas near the residence. Living near greenhouse areas negatively affected birth height, but higher greenness level within 100 m of the residence had a positive effect. Birth head circumference was only associated with sociodemographic factors in the multivariate model.

CONCLUSION

Land use types near the homes of pregnant women, but not exposure to air pollutants, were significantly associated with birth weight and height in the Greater Taipei Area. Increased greenness level was positively associated with birth height, and living near commercial or greenhouse areas had adverse effects on birth outcomes. Living in a healthy neighborhood is critical for the birth outcomes of infants and presumably their health in early childhood.

Oxidative Stress in NAFLD: Role of Nutrients and Food Contaminants

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is often the hepatic expression of metabolic syndrome and its comorbidities that comprise, among others, obesity and insulin-resistance. NAFLD involves a large spectrum of clinical conditions. These range from steatosis, a benign liver disorder characterized by the accumulation of fat in hepatocytes, to non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), which is characterized by inflammation, hepatocyte damage, and liver fibrosis. NASH can further progress to cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma. The etiology of NAFLD involves both genetic and environmental factors, including an unhealthy lifestyle. Of note, unhealthy eating is clearly associated with NAFLD development and progression to NASH. Both macronutrients (sugars, lipids, proteins) and micronutrients (vitamins, phytoingredients, antioxidants) affect NAFLD pathogenesis. Furthermore, some evidence indicates disruption of metabolic homeostasis by food contaminants, some of which are risk factor candidates in NAFLD. At the molecular level, several models have been proposed for the pathogenesis of NAFLD. Most importantly, oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage have been reported to be causative in NAFLD initiation and progression. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the contribution of nutrients and food contaminants, especially pesticides, to oxidative stress and how they may influence NAFLD pathogenesis.

Perinatal exposure to a dietary pesticide cocktail does not increase susceptibility to high-fat diet-induced metabolic perturbations at adulthood but modifies urinary and fecal metabolic fingerprints in C57Bl6/J mice

BACKGROUND

We recently demonstrated that chronic dietary exposure to a mixture of pesticides at low-doses induced sexually dimorphic obesogenic and diabetogenic effects in adult mice. Perinatal pesticide exposure may also be a factor in metabolic disease etiology. However, the long-term consequences of perinatal pesticide exposure remain controversial and largely unexplored.

OBJECTIVES

Here we assessed how perinatal exposure to the same low-dose pesticide cocktail impacted metabolic homeostasis in adult mice.

METHODS

Six pesticides (boscalid, captan, chlopyrifos, thiachloprid, thiophanate, and ziram) were incorporated in food pellets. During the gestation and lactation periods, female (F0) mice were fed either a pesticide-free or a pesticide-enriched diet at doses exposing them to the tolerable daily intake (TDI) level for each compound, using a 1:1 body weight scaling from humans to mice. All male and female offsprings (F1) were then fed the pesticide-free diet until 18 weeks of age, followed by challenge with a pesticide-free high-fat diet (HFD) for 6 weeks. Metabolic parameters, including body weight, food and water consumption, glucose tolerance, and urinary and fecal metabolomes, were assessed over time. At the end of the experiment, we evaluated energetic metabolism and microbiota activity using biochemical assays, gene expression profiling, and ¹H NMR-based metabolomics in the liver, urine, and feces.

RESULTS

Perinatal pesticide exposure did not affect body weight or energy homeostasis in 6- and 14-week-old mice. As expected, HFD increased body weight and induced metabolic disorders as compared to a low-fat diet. However, HFD-induced metabolic perturbations were similar between mice with and without perinatal pesticide exposure. Interestingly, perinatal pesticide exposure induced time-specific and sex-specific alterations in the urinary and fecal metabolomes of adult mice, suggesting long-lasting changes in gut microbiota.

CONCLUSIONS

Perinatal pesticide exposure induced sustained sexually dimorphic perturbations of the urinary and fecal metabolic fingerprints, but did not significantly influence the development of HFD-induced metabolic diseases.

The Possibility of Sustainable Urban Horticulture Based on Nature Therapy

Population growth and increased stress caused by urbanization have led to social problems that are predicted to intensify in the future. In these conditions, the recently established ”nature therapy” has revealed that an environment rich in various plant life significantly contributes to the relief of physical and mental stress. Meanwhile, from the perspective of reduction in the energy required for transportation and the retention of plant freshness, urban horticulture, in which plant life exists harmoniously with the city, has attracted considerable attention. Interactions between humans and plants in urban horticulture are considered to contribute to the good health and wellbeing of people. Therefore, we incorporate human-centered thinking based on nature therapy into horticultural produce-centered thinking based on conventional urban horticulture. By introducing a pioneering urban horticulture plant factory as an example, we propose the possibility of sustainable urban horticulture based on nature therapy.

Occupational exposure to pesticides and associated health effects among greenhouse farm workers

The number and production capacities of greenhouse farms have been increased across the globe, driven by an effort for addressing food security problems related to the rapid population growth and the effects of climate change. As a result, there was a large increase in the number of greenhouse farm workers who are typically involved in chemical preparations and pesticide sprayings, crop harvesting, and greenhouse maintenance activities. Considering the enclosed architecture of the greenhouse farm design and the frequent application of pesticides, the objective of this review was to characterize pesticide exposure levels and resultant health effects among greenhouse farm workers. While most health assessment studies were mainly based on self-reported symptoms, this review showed limited epidemiological and clinical studies on the assessment of the health effects of pesticide exposure on greenhouse workers' health. Reproductive disorders, respiratory symptoms, neurological symptoms, and skin irritations were the most reported health effects among greenhouse farm workers. Additionally, there were limited studies on respirable pesticide-borne fine and ultrafine particulate matters in greenhouse farms. Ventilation systems and indoor environmental conditions of greenhouse farms were not designed according to specifications of the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE). Among recommendations provided, long-term exposure assessments of pesticide effects on children born by greenhouse farm workers should be considered in future research. Also, compliance with ASHRAE indoor ventilation and environmental standards will be very important in reducing pesticide exposure and health effects among greenhouse farm workers.

The greenhouse work environment: a modifier of occupational pesticide exposure?

Greenhouses are enclosed structures which have various characteristics that enhance crop productivity, but the implications for workers' pesticide exposure and uptake are not well understood. A narrative literature review was conducted to explore the mechanism/s of interactions between greenhouse characteristics and occupational pesticide exposure. Using a "work", "worker" and "workplace" conceptual framework, the greenhouse environment (hot and humid microclimate, limited space and dense crop arrangements) combines with work characteristics (high work and pesticide use intensity, multi-tasking, predominantly manual spraying techniques and quick reentry to treated farms) to potentially increase occupational pesticide exposure, compared with open field farming. Greenhouse environments, are variable but have been shown to influence pesticide availability, route, pathways and frequency of exposure, deposition and distribution on a worker's body as well as use and performance of exposure control methods. Training programs can emphasize the differences in exposure potential between greenhouse and open field farming. Development of tailored guidelines for exposure control strategies to better suit the level of uniqueness of greenhouse agriculture seems warranted.

Prenatal pesticide exposure and PON1 genotype associated with adolescent body fat distribution evaluated by dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA)

Many modern pesticides have endocrine disrupting abilities and early-life exposure may affect growth and disease risk later in life. Previously, we reported associations between prenatal pesticide exposure and higher childhood body fat content measured by anthropometry. The associations were affected by child PON1 Q192R genotype. We aimed to study whether prenatal pesticide exposure was still associated with body fat content and distribution in the children at puberty and the potential impact of both maternal and child PON1 Q192R genotype. In this prospective cohort study of 247 children born by occupationally exposed or unexposed women (greenhouse workers and controls) two follow-up examinations (age 10-15 and 11-16 years) including simple anthropometry, skinfold measurements, pubertal staging and blood sampling were performed. Total and regional fat% was determined by dual X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) at age 10-15. Prenatal pesticide exposure was associated with increased total, android, and gynoid fat percentage (DXA) at age 10-15 years after adjustment for sex, socioeconomic status, and puberty (all β = 0.5 standard deviation score (SDS) p < 0.05). Stratified by sex, the associations were significant in girls (total fat: β = 0.7 SDS, android-gynoid ratio: β = 0.1, both p < 0.05), but not in boys. Carrying the R-allele (child or mother, separately, or both) augmented the differences between exposed and unexposed children (total fat: β = 1.0 SDS, β = 0.8 SDS, p < 0.05, respectively, and β = 1.2 SDS, p < 0.01). No exposure-related differences were found if either the child or mother had the QQ wild-type. At age 11-16, exposed children tended to have a higher total fat% estimated by skinfolds than unexposed children (p = 0.06). No significant associations between prenatal exposure and body mass index or waist circumference were found. Prenatal pesticide exposure was associated with higher adolescent body fat content, including android fat deposition, independent of puberty. Girls appeared more susceptible than boys. Furthermore, the association depended on maternal and child PON1 Q192R genotype.

Age, occupational class and sickness absence during pregnancy: a retrospective analysis study of the Norwegian population registry

OBJECTIVE

Western women increasingly delay having children to advance their career, and pregnancy is considered to be riskier among older women. In Norway, this development surprisingly coincides with increased sickness absence among young pregnant women, rather than their older counterparts. This paper tests the hypothesis that young pregnant women have a higher number of sick days because this age group includes a higher proportion of working class women, who are more prone to sickness absence.

DESIGN

A zero-inflated Poisson regression was conducted on the Norwegian population registry.

PARTICIPANTS

All pregnant employees giving birth in 2004-2008 were included in the study. A total number of 216 541 pregnancies were observed among 180 483 women.

OUTCOME MEASURE

Number of sick days.

RESULTS

Although the association between age and number of sick days was U-shaped, pregnant women in their early 20s had a higher number of sick days than those in their mid-40s. This was particularly the case for pregnant women with previous births. In this group, 20-year-olds had 12.6 more sick days than 45-year-olds; this age difference was reduced to 6.3 after control for class. Among women undergoing their first pregnancy, 20-year-olds initially had 1.2 more sick days than 45-year-olds, but control for class altered this age difference. After control for class, 45-year-old first-time pregnant women had 2.9 more sick days than 20-year-olds with corresponding characteristics.

CONCLUSIONS

The negative association between age and sickness absence was partly due to younger age groups including more working class women, who were more prone to sickness absence. Young pregnant women's needs for job adjustments should not be underestimated.

Work activities and risk of prematurity, low birth weight and pre-eclampsia: an updated review with meta-analysis

OBJECTIVES

We assessed the evidence relating preterm delivery (PTD), low birth weight, small for gestational age (SGA), pre-eclampsia and gestational hypertension to five occupational exposures (working hours, shift work, lifting, standing and physical workload). We conducted a systematic search in Medline and Embase (1966 to 2011), updating a previous search with a further 6 years of observations.

METHODS

As before, combinations of keywords and medical subject headings were used. Each relevant paper was assessed for completeness of reporting and potential for important bias or confounding, and its effect estimates abstracted. Where similar definitions of exposure and outcome existed we calculated pooled estimates of relative risk (RR) in meta-analysis.

RESULTS

Analysis was based on 86 reports (32 cohort investigations, 57 with usable data on PTD, 54 on birth weight and 11 on pre-eclampsia/gestational hypertension); 33 reports were new to this review. For PTD, findings across a substantial evidence base were generally consistent, effectively ruling out large effects (eg, RR>1.2). Larger and higher quality studies were less positive, while meta-estimates of risk were smaller than in previous analyses and best estimates pointed to modest or null effects (RR 1.04 to 1.18). For SGA, the position was similar but meta-estimates were even closer to the null (eight of nine RRs ≤ 1.07). For pre-eclampsia/gestational hypertension the evidence base remains insufficient.

CONCLUSIONS

The balance of evidence is against large effects for the associations investigated. As the evidence base has grown, estimates of risk in relation to these outcomes have become smaller.

Birth and fetal death records and environmental exposures: promising data elements for environmental public health tracking of reproductive outcomes

OBJECTIVES

We inventoried and reviewed the birth and fetal death certificates of all 50 U.S. states to identify nonstandard data items that are environmentally relevant, inexpensive to collect, and might enhance environmental public health tracking.

METHODS

We obtained online or requested by mail or telephone the birth certificate and fetal death record forms or formats from each state. Every state data element was compared to the 2003 standards promulgated by the National Center for Health Statistics to identify any items that are not included on the standard. We then evaluated these items for their utility in environmentally related analyses.

RESULTS

We found three data fields of potential interest. First, although every state included residence of mother at time of delivery on the birth certificate, only four states collected information on how long the mother had lived there. This item may be useful in that it could be used to assess and reduce misclassification of environmental exposures among women during pregnancy. Second, we found that father's address was listed on the birth certificates of eight states. This data field may be useful for defining paternal environmental exposures, especially in cases where the parents do not live together. Third, parental occupation was listed on the birth certificates of 15 states and may be useful for defining parental workplace exposures. Our findings were similar for fetal death records.

CONCLUSION

If these data elements are accurate and well-reported, their addition to birth, fetal death, and other health records may aid in environmental public health tracking.

Pesticide exposure and risk of Parkinson's disease: a family-based case-control study

BACKGROUND

Pesticides and correlated lifestyle factors (e.g., exposure to well-water and farming) are repeatedly reported risk factors for Parkinson's disease (PD), but few family-based studies have examined these relationships.

METHODS

Using 319 cases and 296 relative and other controls, associations of direct pesticide application, well-water consumption, and farming residences/occupations with PD were examined using generalized estimating equations while controlling for age-at-examination, sex, cigarette smoking, and caffeine consumption.

RESULTS

Overall, individuals with PD were significantly more likely to report direct pesticide application than their unaffected relatives (odds ratio = 1.61; 95% confidence interval, 1.13-2.29). Frequency, duration, and cumulative exposure were also significantly associated with PD in a dose-response pattern (p </= 0.013). Associations of direct pesticide application did not vary by sex but were modified by family history of PD, as significant associations were restricted to individuals with no family history. When classifying pesticides by functional type, both insecticides and herbicides were found to significantly increase risk of PD. Two specific insecticide classes, organochlorines and organophosphorus compounds, were significantly associated with PD. Consuming well-water and living/working on a farm were not associated with PD.

CONCLUSION

These data corroborate positive associations of broadly defined pesticide exposure with PD in families, particularly for sporadic PD. These data also implicate a few specific classes of pesticides in PD and thus emphasize the need to consider a more narrow definition of pesticides in future studies.