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Gløersen Ø, Viken Å, Lund-Hansen M, Losnegard T. The influence of race duration on oxygen demand, uptake and deficit in competitive cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024:10.1007/s00421-024-05531-1. [PMID: 38918220 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05531-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2023] [Accepted: 06/11/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To measure oxygen demand, uptake, and deficits in competitive cross-country skiers during outdoor roller skiing at different competition durations, ranging from the endurance domain to the sprint domain. METHODS Ten competitive cross-country skiers (6 males; V ˙ O2max 78 ± 3 and 4 females; V ˙ O2max 62 ± 3 mL∙kg-1∙min-1) raced time trials consisting of 1, 2, and 4 laps in a 1.6 km racecourse in a randomized order with 35 min recovery in-between. Oxygen uptake was measured using a wearable metabolic system while oxygen demand was estimated from kinematic data (GPS and IMU) and an athlete-specific model of skiing economy. Skiing economy and V ˙ O2max was established on a separate test day using six submaximal constant-load trials at different speeds and inclines, and one maximal-effort trial on a roller-skiing treadmill. RESULTS Average oxygen demand was 112 ± 8%, 103 ± 7% and 98 ± 7% of V ˙ O2max during the 1 (3:37 ± 0:20 m:ss), 2 (7:36 ± 0:38 m:ss) and 4 (15:43 ± 1:26 m:ss) lap time trials, respectively, and appeared to follow an inverse relationship with time-trial duration. Average oxygen uptake was unaffected by race length (86 ± 5%, 86 ± 5%, and 86 ± 7% of V ˙ O2max, respectively). Accumulated oxygen deficit at the end of each time trial was 85 ± 13, 106 ± 32 and 158 ± 62 mL∙kg-1, while oxygen deficits per work bout was 23 ± 3, 18 ± 3 and 16 ± 3 mL∙kg-1 for the 1, 2, and 4-lap time trials, respectively. CONCLUSION Elite cross-country skiers adjust their pacing strategies from attaining relatively small oxygen deficits per work bout in the endurance domain, to larger deficits in the sprint domain. This indicates a shift in strategy from prioritizing stable work-economy and rate-of-recovery in the endurance domain, to maximizing power output in the sprint domain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Gløersen
- Department of Health Research, SINTEF Digital, Postboks 124 Blindern, 0314, Oslo, Norway.
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway.
| | - Ånung Viken
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Magne Lund-Hansen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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Falk Neto JH, Faulhaber M, Kennedy MD. The Characteristics of Endurance Events with a Variable Pacing Profile-Time to Embrace the Concept of "Intermittent Endurance Events"? Sports (Basel) 2024; 12:164. [PMID: 38921858 PMCID: PMC11207974 DOI: 10.3390/sports12060164] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2024] [Revised: 05/27/2024] [Accepted: 06/06/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
A variable pacing profile is common in different endurance events. In these races, several factors, such as changes in elevation or race dynamics, lead participants to perform numerous surges in intensity. These surges are so frequent that certain events, such as cross-country (XC) skiing, mountain biking (MTB), triathlon, and road cycling, have been termed "intermittent endurance events". The characteristics of these surges vary depending on the sport: MTB and triathlon require athletes to perform numerous short (<10 s) bouts; XC skiing require periods of short- and moderate-(30 s to 2 min) duration efforts, while road cycling is comprised of a mix of short-, moderate-, and long-duration (>2 min) bouts. These bouts occur at intensities above the maximal metabolic steady state (MMSS), with many efforts performed at intensities above the athletes' maximal aerobic power or speed (MAP/MAS) (i.e., supramaximal intensities). Given the factors that influence the requirement to perform surges in these events, athletes must be prepared to always engage in a race with a highly stochastic pace. The aim of this review is to characterize the variable pacing profile seen in endurance events and to discuss how the performance of multiple maximal and supramaximal surges in intensity can affect how athletes fatigue during a race and influence training strategies that can lead to success in these races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joao Henrique Falk Neto
- Athlete Health Lab., Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
| | - Martin Faulhaber
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria;
| | - Michael D. Kennedy
- Athlete Health Lab., Faculty of Kinesiology, Sport and Recreation, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2R3, Canada;
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Zoppirolli C, Modena R, Bortolan L, Schena F, Pellegrini B. Non-specific and ski-specific performance development in peri-pubertal cross-country skiers. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:1461-1474. [PMID: 38112794 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05372-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2023] [Accepted: 11/13/2023] [Indexed: 12/21/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To evaluate non-specific and ski-specific performance development in male (M) and female (F) peri-pubertal cross-country skiers and to evaluate their relationship with cross-country skiing (XCS) performance and biological maturation within each age category and sex. METHODS Twenty-one and 19 athletes under 14 and 16 years old, respectively (U14 and U16), were tested for biological maturation; non-specific speed, agility, strength, endurance, and balance; ski-specific speed, agility, and endurance. XCS index was considered as average percentage time-gap from the winner in four official races. Sex and age-category effects were verified and a model predicting XCS index was extrapolated for each group. RESULTS Performance capacities raised across age categories (p < 0.05) except for non-specific speed, agility, balance, and relative arm strength (p > 0.05). F showed advanced biological maturation and greater balance than M (p < 0.05), while M showed higher performance capacities (p < 0.05). XCS index was not related to biological maturation within each group (p > 0.05); its variance was explained by non-specific speed and ski-specific upper-body endurance in M-U14 (p = 0.014), lower-limb strength and ski-specific agility in M-U16 and F-U14 (both p = 0.001), ski-specific upper-body endurance in F-U16 (p = 0.002). CONCLUSION Ski-specific performance capacities still develop during peri-puberty, with peri-pubertal M overperforming with respect to F of comparable performance level. XCS index was not influenced by biological maturation withing each age category, but it was rather explained by specific parameters that commonly undergo the "adolescent spurts", accordingly to the average biological maturation level of M and F athletes of each age category.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM, Sport Mountain and Health Research Centre, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy.
- Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy.
| | - Roberto Modena
- CeRiSM, Sport Mountain and Health Research Centre, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy
- Faculty of Health Sciences and Social Care, Molde University College, Molde, Norway
| | - Lorenzo Bortolan
- CeRiSM, Sport Mountain and Health Research Centre, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Federico Schena
- CeRiSM, Sport Mountain and Health Research Centre, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM, Sport Mountain and Health Research Centre, University of Verona, Rovereto, Italy
- Department of Engineering for Innovation Medicine, University of Verona, Verona, Italy
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Talsnes RK, Berdal T, Brattebø JM, Seeberg T, Losnegard T, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Comprehensive analysis of performance, physiological, and perceptual responses during an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:1015-1025. [PMID: 37804364 PMCID: PMC10879232 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05326-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2023] [Accepted: 09/14/2023] [Indexed: 10/09/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate performance, physiological, and perceptual responses of an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition in the skating style. METHODS Eighteen national-level male junior skiers participated in a simulated competition comprising an individual time trial (TT), followed by three heats (quarterfinals [QF], semifinals [SF], and final [F]). Participants' heart rate (HR) was continuously monitored while perceived readiness (RED, 1-10), rating of perceived exertion (RPE, 6-20), and blood lactate [La-] were assessed at standardized time points. RESULTS The total duration and distance covered were 03:30 ± 00:06 h and 25.2 ± 2.9 km, respectively. The participants spent 02:19 ± 00:27 h > 60% of their maximal HR (HRmax) and 00:16 ± 00:04 h > 85% of HRmax. Average HR decreased from TT to F (89.3 ± 2.0% vs. 86.9 ± 3.0% of HRmax, P < 0.01). [La-] levels were highest before (4.6 ± 2.0 vs. 2.9 ± 1.2, 3.2 ± 2.0 and 2.5 ± 1.3 mmol·L-1, all P < 0.01) and after (10.8 ± 1.4 vs. 9.8 ± 1.6, 9.1 ± 1.8 and 8.7 ± 1.7 mmol·L-1, all P < 0.05) F compared to TT, QF, and SF, respectively. RED was lowest before F compared to TT, QF, and SF (6.6 ± 1.4 vs. 7.9 ± 1.1, 7.6 ± 1.1, and 7.4 ± 1.4, respectively, all P < 0.05) while RPE was highest after TT compared to QF, SF, and F (17.8 ± 0.9 vs. 15.1 ± 2.0, 16.5 ± 1.2 and 16.6 ± 1.8, respectively, all P < 0.01). The six best-performing skiers demonstrated higher RED before F (7.2 ± 0.9 vs. 5.3 ± 1.2, P < 0.05) and higher [La-] after F (11.2 ± 0.2 vs. 10.2 ± 0.3, mmol·L-1, P < 0.05) than lower-performing competitors. CONCLUSION This study provides novel insights into physiological demands of an entire sprint cross-country skiing competition, which involves repeated 3-min high-intensity efforts interspersed with > 2 h (25 km) of low- to moderate-intensity exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.
| | - Tore Berdal
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan-Magnus Brattebø
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Trine Seeberg
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Ma M, Zhao S, Long T, Song Q, Holmberg HC, Liu H. Comparative Analysis of the Diagonal Stride Technique during Roller Skiing and On-Snow Skiing in Youth Cross-Country Skiers. SENSORS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 24:1412. [PMID: 38474946 DOI: 10.3390/s24051412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2024] [Accepted: 02/20/2024] [Indexed: 03/14/2024]
Abstract
Roller skiing is one primary form of training method as it is an off-snow equivalent to cross-country (XC) skiing during the dry land preseason training, but the results could only be applied to on-snow skiing with appropriate caution. The aim of this present study was to investigate the similarities and differences in roller skiing and on-snow skiing with the diagonal stride (DS) technique. Six youth (age: 14.3 ± 2.9 years) skiers participated in this study. Two high-definition video camcorders and FastMove 3D Motion 2.23.3.3101 were used to obtain the three-dimensional kinematic data. The cycle characteristics and joint angle ROM of the DS technique while skiing on different surfaces were similar. Almost all joint angle-time curves that were obtained from roller skiing showed a moderate-to-high degree of similarity to the angle-time curves obtained from on-snow skiing, except the hip adduction-abduction angle. The differences between roller skiing and on-snow skiing were mainly found in the body and calf anteversion angles, and the joint angles at critical instants. DS roller skiing can simulate DS on-snow skiing to a large extent in youth athletes. The hip movement, knee flexion, and calf anteversion at ski/roller ski touchdown and take-off, pole inclination at pole touchdown, body anteversion angle, and trunk anteversion angle at pole touchdown were the points that required caution when transferring preseason practice roller skiing to on-snow skiing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mujia Ma
- School of Sport Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
| | - Shuang Zhao
- China Institute of Sport and Health Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
- Dalian Fast Move Technology Co., Ltd., Dalian 116033, China
| | - Ting Long
- Auckland Bioengineering Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland 1010, New Zealand
| | - Qingquan Song
- School of Strength and Conditioning Training, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
| | | | - Hui Liu
- School of Sport Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
- China Institute of Sport and Health Science, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
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Talsnes RK, Brattebø JM, Berdal T, Seeberg T, Skovereng K, Losnegard T, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Performance-Determining Variables of a Simulated Sprint Cross-Country Skiing Competition. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:95-104. [PMID: 37931616 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2023] [Revised: 09/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/08/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate performance-determining variables of an on-snow sprint cross-country skiing competition and the evolvement in their relationship with performance as the competition progresses from the individual time trial (TT) to the final. METHODS Sixteen national-level male junior skiers (mean [SD] age, 18.6 [0.8] y; peak oxygen uptake [VO2peak], 67.6 [5.5] mL·min-1·kg-1) performed a simulated sprint competition (1.3 km) in the skating style, comprising a TT followed by 3 finals (quarterfinals, semifinals, and final) completed by all skiers. In addition, submaximal and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, on-snow maximal speed tests, and strength/power tests were performed. RESULTS VO2peak and peak treadmill speed during incremental testing and relative heart rate, rating of perceived exertion, blood lactate concentrations, and gross efficiency during submaximal testing were all significantly correlated with performance in the TT and subsequent finals (mean [range] r values: .67 [.53-.86], all P < .05). Relative VO2peak and submaximal relative heart rate and blood lactate concentration were more strongly correlated with performance in the semifinals and final compared with the TT (r values: .74 [.60-.83] vs 0.55 [.51-.60], all P < .05). Maximal speed in uphill and flat terrain was significantly correlated with performance in the TT and subsequent finals (r values: .63 [.38-.70], all P < .05), while strength/power tests did not correlate significantly with sprint performance. CONCLUSIONS VO2peak and high-speed abilities were the most important determinants of sprint cross-country skiing performance, with an increased importance of VO2peak as the competition format progressed toward the final.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan-Magnus Brattebø
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Tore Berdal
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Trine Seeberg
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Knut Skovereng
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Center for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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7
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Bucher E, Millet GP, Wehrlin JP, Steiner T. Test-retest reliability of ski-specific aerobic, sprint, and neuromuscular performance tests in highly trained cross-country skiers. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2023; 33:2482-2498. [PMID: 37635277 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14473] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2023] [Revised: 07/02/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/29/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Laboratory tests are commonly performed by cross-country (XC) skiers due to the challenges of obtaining reliable performance indicators on snow. However, only a few studies have reported reliability data for ski-specific test protocols. Therefore, this study examined the test-retest reliability of ski-specific aerobic, sprint, and neuromuscular performance tests. METHODS Thirty-nine highly trained XC skiers (26 men and 13 women, age: 22 ± 4 years, V̇O2max : 70.1 ± 4.5 and 58.8 ± 4.4 mL·kg-1 ·min-1 , respectively) performed two test trials within 6 days of a diagonal V̇O2max test, n = 27; skating graded exercise test to assess the second lactate threshold (LT2 ), n = 27; 24-min double poling time trial (24-min DP, n = 25), double poling sprint test (SprintDP1 , n = 27), and 1-min self-paced skating sprint test (Sprint1-min , n = 26) using roller skis on a treadmill, and an upper-body strength test (UB-ST, n = 27) to assess peak power (Ppeak ) with light, medium, and heavy loads. For each test, the coefficient of variation (CV), intraclass correlation coefficient (ICC), and minimal detectable change (MDC) were calculated. RESULTS V̇O2max demonstrated good-to-excellent reliability (CV = 1.4%; ICC = 0.99; MDC = 112 mL·min-1 ), whereas moderate-to-excellent reliability was found for LT2 (CV = 3.1%; ICC = 0.95). Performance during 24-min DP, SprintDP1 , and Sprint1-min showed good-to-excellent reliability (CV = 1.0%-2.3%; ICC = 0.96-0.99). Absolute reliability for UB-ST Ppeak was poor (CV = 4.9%-7.8%), while relative reliability was excellent (ICC = 0.93-0.97) across the loads. CONCLUSION In highly trained XC skiers, sport-specific aerobic and sprint performance tests demonstrated high test-retest reliability, while neuromuscular performance for the upper body was less reliable. Using the presented protocols, practitioners can assess within- and between-season changes in relevant performance indicators.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elias Bucher
- Section for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Grégoire P Millet
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Jon P Wehrlin
- Section for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Thomas Steiner
- Section for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen, Magglingen, Switzerland
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8
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Jones TW, Lindblom HP, Laaksonen MS, McGawley K. Using Multivariate Data Analysis to Project Performance in Biathletes and Cross-Country Skiers. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023:1-12. [PMID: 37290762 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine whether competitive performance, as defined by International Biathlon Union (IBU) and International Ski Federation (FIS) points in biathlon and cross-country (XC) skiing, respectively, can be projected using a combination of anthropometric and physiological metrics. Shooting accuracy was also included in the biathlon models. METHODS Data were analyzed using multivariate methods from 45 (23 female and 22 male) biathletes and 202 (86 female and 116 male) XC skiers who were all members of senior national teams, national development teams, or ski-university or high school invite-only programs (age range: 16-36 y). Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Shooting accuracy was assessed via an outdoor standardized testing protocol. RESULTS Valid projective models were identified for female biathletes' IBU points (R2 = .80/Q2 = .65) and female XC skiers' FIS distance (R2 = .81/Q2 = .74) and sprint (R2 = .81/Q2 = .70) points. No valid models were identified for the men. The most important variables for the projection of IBU points were shooting accuracy, speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1, peak aerobic power, and lean mass. The most important variables for the projection of FIS distance and sprint points were speeds at blood lactate concentrations of 4 and 2 mmol·L-1 and peak aerobic power. CONCLUSIONS This study highlights the relative importance of specific anthropometric, physiological, and shooting-accuracy metrics in female biathletes and XC skiers. The data can help to identify the specific metrics that should be targeted when monitoring athletes' progression and designing training plans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Jones
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Hampus P Lindblom
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Marko S Laaksonen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund,Sweden
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Dong A, Wang F, Shuai Z, Zhang K, Qian D, Tian Y. A new kinematic dataset of lower limbs action for balance testing. Sci Data 2023; 10:209. [PMID: 37059747 PMCID: PMC10104813 DOI: 10.1038/s41597-023-02105-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/25/2023] [Indexed: 04/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Balance is a common performance but nevertheless an essential part of performance analysis investigations in ski. Many skier pay attention to the training of balance ability in training. Inertial Measurement Unit, as a kind of Multiplex-type human motion capture system, is widely used because of its humanized human-computer interaction design, low energy consumption and more freedom provided by the environment. The purpose of this research is to use sensor to establish a kinematics dataset of balance test tasks extracted from skis to help quantify skier' balance ability. Perception Neuron Studio motion capture device is used in present. The dataset contains a total of 20 participants' data (half male) of the motion and sensor data, which is collected at a 100 Hz sampling frequency. To our knowledge, this dataset is the only one that uses a BOSU ball in the balance test. We hope that this dataset will contribute to multiple fields of cross-technology integration in physical training and functional testing, including big-data analysis, sports equipment design and sports biomechanical analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anqi Dong
- Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China
| | - Fei Wang
- Beijing Sport University, Beijing, China
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10
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Maximal aerobic and anaerobic power and time performance in 800 m double poling ergometer. Eur J Appl Physiol 2023; 123:1199-1208. [PMID: 36750479 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-023-05149-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate to what extent aerobic power (MAP), maximal anaerobic power (MANP), anaerobic capacity measured as time to exhaustion at 130% MAP (TTE), and maximal accumulated oxygen deficit (MAOD) correlated with 800 m double poling time trial performance (800TT) in a ski ergometer. A second aim was to investigate the relationship between TTE and MAOD, and to what extent TTE and MAOD would relate to anaerobic power reserve (APR). Eighteen cross-country skiers were tested for peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) and oxygen cost of double poling to assess MAP. Peak power measurements during a 100 m TT were performed to assess MANP. TTE and an 800TT with continuous VO2 measurements were performed to assess time performance and MAOD. All tests were performed on a ski ergometer. Both MAP and MANP correlated strongly (r = - 0.936 and - 0.922, respectively, p < 0.01) with 800TT. Neither TTE nor MAOD correlated with 800TT. TTE correlated moderately with MAOD, both in mL kg-1 and in %VO2peak (r = 0.559, p < 0.05 and 0.621, p < 0.01, respectively). Both TTE and MAOD seemed to be a product of APR. These results suggest focusing on MAP and MANP, but not anaerobic capacity to explain time performance in an event with approximately 3 min duration.
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Seeberg TM, Kocbach J, Wolf H, Talsnes RK, Sandbakk ØB. Race development and performance-determining factors in a mass-start cross-country skiing competition. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 4:1094254. [PMID: 36704262 PMCID: PMC9871829 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.1094254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Although five of six Olympic events in cross-country skiing involve mass-starts, those events are sparsely examined scientifically. Therefore, in this study, we investigated speed profiles, pacing strategies, group dynamics and their performance-determining impact in a cross-country skiing mass-start competition. Methods Continuous speed and position of 57 male skiers was measured in a six-lap, 21.8 km national mass-start competition in skating style and later followed up with an online questionnaire. Skiers ranked from 1 to 40 were split into four performance-groups: R1-10 for ranks 1 to 10, R11-20 for ranks 11 to 20, R21-30 for ranks 21 to 30, and R31-40 for ranks 31 to 40. Results All skiers moved together in one large pack for 2.3 km, after which lower-performing skiers gradually lost the leader pack and formed small, dynamic packs. A considerable accordion effect occurred during the first half of the competition that lead to additional decelerations and accelerations and a higher risk of incidents that disadvantaged skiers at the back of the pack. Overall, 31% of the skiers reported incidents, but none were in R1-10. The overall trend was that lap speed decreased after Lap 1 for all skiers and thereafter remained nearly unchanged for R1-10, while it gradually decreased for the lower-performing groups. Skiers in R31-40, R21-30, and R11-20 lost the leader pack during Lap 3, Lap 4, and Lap 5, respectively, and more than 60% of the time-loss relative to the leader pack occurred in the uphill terrain sections. Ultimately, skiers in R1-10 sprinted for the win during the last 1.2 km, in which 2.4 s separated the top five skiers, and a photo finish differentiated first from second place. Overall, a high correlation emerged between starting position and final rank. Conclusions Our results suggest that (a) an adequate starting position, (b) the ability to avoid incidents and disadvantages from the accordion effect, (c) tolerate fluctuations in intensity, and (d) maintain speed throughout the competition, particularly in uphill terrain, as well as (e) having well-developed final sprint abilities, are key factors determining performance during skating-style mass-start cross-country skiing competitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trine M. Seeberg
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway,Smart Sensor and Microsensor System, SINTEF Digital, SINTEF AS, Oslo, Norway,Correspondence: Trine M. Seeberg
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Hanna Wolf
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Øyvind B. Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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The influence of race tactics for performance in the heats of an international sprint cross-country skiing competition. PLoS One 2022; 17:e0278552. [PMID: 36490303 PMCID: PMC9733856 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0278552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2022] [Accepted: 11/18/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the influence of race tactics for performance in the heats of an international sprint cross-country (XC) skiing competition in the classical style. Thirty elite male XC skiers (age: 24±3 years, sprint International Ski Federation [FIS] points: 61±27) performed a sprint time-trial (STT) followed by one to three 'knock-out' heats on a 1.7 km racecourse. An integrated GNSS/IMU system was used to determine position, sub-technique distribution and kinematics. Positioning was analysed using the television broadcast of the race. STT rank correlated positively with the final rank [(rs (28) = .72, P = .001)]. The top-two finishers in each heat were on average ~3.8% slower in the heats compared to the STT (237.1±3.9 vs. 228.3±4.0 seconds, P = .001). On average, the skiers performed ~10 overtakings per 100 meters from the start to the last uphill segment but only ~3 overtakings per 100 meters in the last two segments in each heat. 93.8% of the top-two finishing skiers positioned themselves at top 2 before approaching the final uphill, in which the top-two finishers and the skiers ranked 3-4 were generally faster than those ranked 5-6 in the heats (both, P = .01). Here, top-four skiers employed 5.3% longer cycle lengths and 3.4% higher cycle rates in the diagonal sub-technique than skiers ranked 5-6 (all, P = .01). The present study demonstrates the importance of race tactics for performance in the heats of sprint XC skiing, in which the main performance-determining factors in the present racecourse were a front position when approaching the final uphill segment combined with the ability to ski fast in that segment. In general, this illustrates how accurate racecourse analyses may help skiers to optimize their race-individual race-strategies in the heats of sprint XC skiing competitions.
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Rønnestad BR, Bjerkrheim KA, Hansen J, Mølmen KS. A 6-day high-intensity interval microcycle improves indicators of endurance performance in elite cross-country skiers. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:948127. [DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.948127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
Abstract
PurposeThe aim of this study was to compare the effects of a 6-day high-intensity interval (HIT) block [BLOCK, n = 12, maximal oxygen uptake (V̇O2max = 69. 6 ± 4.3 mL·min−1·kg−1)] with a time-matched period with usual training (CON, n = 12, V̇O2max = 69.2 ± 4.2 mL·min−1·kg−1) in well-trained cross-country (XC) skiers on physiological determinants and indicators of endurance performance. Furthermore, the study aimed to investigate the acute physiological responses, including time ≥90% of V̇O2max, and its associated reliability during repeated HIT sessions in the HIT microcycle.MethodsBefore the 6-day HIT block and following 5 days of recovery after the HIT block, both groups were tested on indicators of endurance performance. To quantify time ≥90% of V̇O2max during interval sessions in the HIT block, V̇O2 measurements were performed on the 1st, 2nd, and last HIT session in BLOCK.ResultsBLOCK had a larger improvement than CON in maximal 1-min velocity achieved during the V̇O2max test (3.1 ± 3.1% vs. 1.2 ± 1.6%, respectively; p = 0.010) and velocity corresponding to 4 mmol·L−1 blood lactate (3.2 ± 2.9% vs. 0.6 ± 2.1%, respectively; p = 0.024). During submaximal exercise, BLOCK displayed a larger reduction in respiratory exchange ratio, blood lactate concentration, heart rate, and rate of perceived exertion (p < 0.05) and a tendency towards less energy expenditure compared to CON (p = 0.073). The ICC of time ≥90% V̇O2max in the present study was 0.57, which indicates moderate reliability.ConclusionsIn well-trained XC skiers, BLOCK induced superior changes in indicators of endurance performance compared with CON, while time ≥90% of V̇O2max during the HIT sessions in the 6-day block had a moderate reliability.
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Shang L, Sandbakk Ø, Shi R, Chen X, Talsnes RK. Analysis of a Skating Time-Trial Competition and Associated Performance-Determinants in Cross-Country Skiers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:11580. [PMID: 36141844 PMCID: PMC9517335 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph191811580] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the contributions of time in different terrains and sub-technique distribution to overall time-trial performance, as well as the relationships of laboratory and field-based performance determinants in cross-country skiers. Methods: Fourteen male XC skiers were monitored during a 10 km (3 × 3.3 km) skating time-trial competition. On separate days, the skiers performed body composition assessments, laboratory tests while roller-ski skating and a 3 km uphill skating field test. Results: Time in uphill terrain was most strongly correlated with overall performance (r = 0.99, p < 0.01). G2 and G3 were the predominant sub-techniques (61% of overall time) with more use of G2 on lap three compared to lap one (p < 0.05). Body mass and lean mass were inversely correlated with overall and uphill performance (r = -0.60-0.75, all p < 0.05). VO2 at 4 mmol·L-1, VO2peak and TTE while roller-ski skating in the laboratory and the 3 km uphill skating field test correlated with overall performance (r = -0.66-0.85, all p < 0.05). Conclusions: Time in uphill terrain was the main contributor to overall performance, and G3 and G2 the most used sub-techniques with increased utilization of G2 throughout the competition. VO2peak and TTE while roller-ski skating in the laboratory and performance in an uphill skating field test had the strongest associations with time-trial performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lei Shang
- Institute of Competitive Sports, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
- Centre for Sports Research, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7030 Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ruiying Shi
- National Academy of Economic Strategy, Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, Beijing 100006, China
| | - Xiaoping Chen
- Institute of Competitive Sports, Beijing Sport University, Beijing 100084, China
- Centre for Sports Research, China Institute of Sport Science, Beijing 100061, China
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, 7735 Steinkjer, Norway or rune.k.talsnes.nord.no
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, 8026 Bodø, Norway
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15
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Myklebust H, Losnegard T, Hallén J. Kinematic differences between uphill roller skiing and on-snow skiing using the V2 skating technique. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:2355-2365. [PMID: 35895144 PMCID: PMC9560927 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-05007-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2022] [Accepted: 07/04/2022] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Roller skiing is the primary sport-specific training and testing mode during pre-competition periods for cross-country skiers, biathletes, and Nordic combined athletes. The present study aimed to compare the kinematics between uphill roller skiing and on-snow skiing using the V2 sub-technique. Methods In a cross-over design, nine well-trained male skiers performed short trials (< 40 s) at constant inclination (8.0°), speed (3.0 m‧s−1), and controlled rolling/gliding friction on asphalt (in the fall), on the treadmill (in the fall and winter), and during on-snow skiing (in the winter). Kinematic data were collected using a validated inertial measurement unit system. Results Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed no differences between treadmill and asphalt roller skiing. Further, including on-snow skiing showed moderate to good reliability (ICC ≥ 0.63, p ≤ 0.001) for ground-contact temporal variables. However, on-snow skiing moderately increased hip range of motion around the longitudinal axis (22.2 ± 7.7° vs. 14.1 ± 4.7°), lateral hip displacement (44.1 ± 7.1 cm vs. 37.2 ± 6.6 cm) and pole push times (422 ± 41 ms vs. 386 ± 31 ms), and on-snow skiing was characterized by altered hip rotational patterns compared to roller skiing. Conclusion V2 roller ski skating simulates on-snow ski skating to a large extent, but the mechanical properties of the skis and/or surface hardness systematically alter skiers’ hip movements and pole push times. This implies a potential for equipment optimization to increase training specificity during pre-competition periods and highlights a need for future studies to examine the kinematic effects of snow hardness on all sub-techniques. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00421-022-05007-0.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håvard Myklebust
- Department of Education and Sports Science, Faculty of Arts and Education, University of Stavanger, P.O. Box 8600, 4036, Stavanger, Norway.
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jostein Hallén
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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Staunton CA, Colyer SL, Karlsson Ø, Swarén M, Ihalainen S, McGawley K. Performance and Micro-Pacing Strategies in a Freestyle Cross-Country Skiing Distance Race. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:834474. [PMID: 35252860 PMCID: PMC8893266 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.834474] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study examined the micro-pacing strategies during a distance freestyle cross-country (XC) skiing competition. Nine female and 10 male highly trained XC skiers wore a GNSS device during a FIS-sanctioned race. The course was ~4900 m; women completed two-laps; men completed three-laps. The course was divided into uphill (S1, S3, S5, S7), downhill (S2, S4, S6, S8), and flat (S9) sections for analyses. Statistical parametric mapping was used to determine the course positions (clusters) where total race time or section time was significantly associated with instantaneous skiing speed. Total race time was associated with instantaneous skiing speed during a cluster in S1 on lap 2 for both sexes (t ≥ 5.899, p ≤ 0.008). The two longest uphill sections (S1; S5) and the flat section (S9) contained clusters where section times were related to instantaneous skiing speed for both sexes (p < 0.05). The fastest woman gained 6.9 s on the slowest woman during a cluster in S1 on lap 1 and 7.3 s during a cluster in S9 on lap 1. The fastest man gained 51.7 s on the slowest man over all clusters in S5 over the 3 laps combined. Compared to skiers with longer total race times, skiers with shorter race times skied with faster instantaneous speeds in some clusters of the uphill sections, as well as on the flat section of the course. This study also identified different relative micro-pacing strategies for women and men during freestyle distance XC skiing races. Finally, statistical parametric mapping analyses can help to identify individual strengths and weaknesses for guiding training programs and optimise competition pacing strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Craig A. Staunton
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
- *Correspondence: Craig A. Staunton
| | | | - Øyvind Karlsson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Mikael Swarén
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
- Swedish Unit for Metrology in Sports, School of Education, Health and Social Studies, Dalarna University, Falun, Sweden
| | - Simo Ihalainen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
- Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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17
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Performance Effects of Video- and Sensor-Based Feedback for Implementing a Terrain-Specific Micropacing Strategy in Cross-Country Skiing. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:1672-1682. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0106] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2022] [Revised: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: To investigate the performance effects of video- and sensor-based feedback for implementing a terrain-specific micropacing strategy in cross-country (XC) skiing. Methods: Following a simulated 10-km skating time trial (Race1) on snow, 26 national-level male XC skiers were randomly allocated into an intervention (n = 14) or control group (n = 12), before repeating the race (Race2) 2 days later. Between races, intervention received video- and sensor-based feedback through a theoretical lecture and a practical training session aiming to implement a terrain-specific micropacing strategy focusing on active power production over designated hilltops to save time in the subsequent downhill. The control group only received their overall results and performed a training session with matched training load. Results: From Race1 to Race2, the intervention group increased the total variation of chest acceleration on all hilltops (P < .001) and reduced time compared with the control group in a specifically targeted downhill segment (mean group difference: −0.55 s; 95% confidence interval [CI], −0.9 to −0.19 s; P = .003), as well as in overall time spent in downhill (−14.4 s; 95% CI, −21.4 to −7.4 s; P < .001) and flat terrain (−6.5 s; 95% CI, −11.0 to −1.9 s; P = .006). No between-groups differences were found for either overall uphill terrain (−9.3 s; 95% CI, −31.2 to 13.2 s; P = .426) or total race time (−32.2 s; 95% CI, −100.2 to 35.9 s; P = .339). Conclusion: Targeted training combined with video- and sensor-based feedback led to a successful implementation of a terrain-specific micropacing strategy in XC skiing, which reduced the time spent in downhill and flat terrain for intervention compared with a control group. However, no change in overall performance was observed between the 2 groups of XC skiers.
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Jones TW, Lindblom HP, Karlsson Ø, Andersson EP, McGawley K. Anthropometric, Physiological, and Performance Developments in Cross-country Skiers. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2021; 53:2553-2564. [PMID: 34649265 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000002739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study aimed to describe changes in laboratory-assessed anthropometric and physiological characteristics, training volumes, and competitive performance in national development-team cross-country skiers over a 25-month period, and to analyze whether changes in competitive performance could be predicted by changes in laboratory-assessed qualities and training volumes. METHODS Data collected over 25 months from 30 national development-team cross-country skiers (14 women, 16 men; age, 18-23 yr) were analyzed retrospectively using multivariate statistics. Anthropometric and physiological characteristics were assessed via dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry and incremental roller-ski treadmill tests, respectively. Total training volumes and distributions of low- and high-intensity training were analyzed from online training diaries, and competitive performance was determined by International Ski Federation (FIS) distance and sprint points. RESULTS Whole- and upper-body lean mass increased in the full cohort of skiers (n = 30; both P < 0.05), whereas lower-body lean mass, whole-body fat mass, speed and oxygen uptake (V˙O2) at a blood lactate concentration (BLa) of 2 and 4 mmol·L-1, as well as time-trial completion time, power output, and peak V˙O2, improved in the women only (all P < 0.05). Valid predictive models were identified for female skiers' best FIS distance points (R2 = 0.81/Q2 = 0.51) and changes in FIS distance points (R2 = 0.83/Q2 = 0.54), with body mass, fat mass, lean mass, V˙O2peak, and speed at a BLa of 4 mmol·L-1 identified as consistently important variables for projection. CONCLUSIONS The valid prediction of competitive performance was achieved for women only in distance events. This study suggests that improvements in body composition and aerobic capacity may be more beneficial for elite female development-level skiers than for their male counterparts. These results have implications for athlete selection and performance development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas W Jones
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, SWEDEN
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19
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Talsnes RK, Solli GS, Kocbach J, Torvik PØ, Sandbakk Ø. Laboratory- and field-based performance-predictions in cross-country skiing and roller-skiing. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0256662. [PMID: 34428258 PMCID: PMC8384222 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0256662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate how various laboratory- and field-based tests predict on-snow cross-country (XC) skiing and roller-skiing performance. Thirty-three national-level male XC skiers (19.0±2.5 years, maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max] 70.8±4.7 mL·min-1·kg-1) performed a 13.6-km roller-ski skating competition tracked by a global positioning system (GPS), which together with individual distance International Ski Federation (FIS) points was used to assess their performance level. On separate days, time in a 6.4-km uphill running time-trial (RUN-TT) and 1.3-km uphill roller-ski double-poling time-trial (DP-TT) was measured in the field and performance indices determined while running and roller-ski skating in the laboratory. The mean finishing times for the RUN-TT and the DP-TT showed moderate to large correlations with distance FIS points and performance in the roller-ski skating competition (r = 0.56-0.72; all p<0.05). RUN-TT was more strongly correlated with distance FIS points than DP-TT (r = 0.72 versus 0.56; p<0.05). Performance indices and VO2max in incremental running and roller-ski skating in the laboratory showed large to very large correlations with distance FIS points and roller-skiing performance (r = 0.50-0.90; all p<0.05). Performance indices and VO2max in running tended to be more strongly correlated with roller-skiing performance than corresponding values obtained while roller-ski skating (all p<0.10). The present findings suggest that both laboratory performance indices and field-based performance tests provide valid predictions of XC skiing and roller-skiing performance in a heterogeneous group of male XC skiers, with test values obtained in running tending to be more strongly correlated with XC skiing performance than those found for technique-specific modalities on roller skis. However, more sophisticated and mode-specific testing might be required for more homogenous groups of elite XC skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer, Norway
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
- * E-mail:
| | - Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Per-Øyvind Torvik
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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An Analysis of Warm-Up Strategies at a Cross-Country Skiing National Championship. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 17:50-57. [PMID: 34359050 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To provide a descriptive analysis of the warm-up (WU) strategies employed by cross-country skiers prior to distance and sprint competitions at a national championship and to compare the skiers' planned and executed WUs prior to the respective competitions. METHODS Twenty-one national- and international-level skiers (11 women and 10 men) submitted WU plans prior to the distance and sprint competitions, and after the competitions, reported any deviations from the plans. Skiers used personal monitors to record heart rate (HR) during WU, races, and cooldown. Quantitative statistical analyses were conducted on WU durations, durations in HR-derived intensity zones, and WU loads. Qualitative analyses were conducted on skiers' WU plans and their reasons for deviating from the plans. RESULTS Skiers' planned WUs were similar in content and planned time in HR-derived intensity zones for both the distance and sprint competitions. However, 45% of the women and 20% of the men reported that their WU was not carried out as planned, with reasons detailed as being due to incorrect intensities and running out of time. WU activities including skiing across variable terrain, muscle-potentiating exercises, and heat-maintenance strategies were missing from the skiers' planned routines. CONCLUSIONS Skiers favored a long, traditional WU approach for both the sprint and distance events, performing less high-intensity and more moderate-intensity exercise during their WUs than planned. In addition, elements likely relevant to successful performance in cross-country skiing were missing from WU plans.
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Framework for In-Field Analyses of Performance and Sub-Technique Selection in Standing Para Cross-Country Skiers. SENSORS 2021; 21:s21144876. [PMID: 34300615 PMCID: PMC8309881 DOI: 10.3390/s21144876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2021] [Revised: 07/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Our aims were to evaluate the feasibility of a framework based on micro-sensor technology for in-field analyses of performance and sub-technique selection in Para cross-country (XC) skiing by using it to compare these parameters between elite standing Para (two men; one woman) and able-bodied (AB) (three men; four women) XC skiers during a classical skiing race. The data from a global navigation satellite system and inertial measurement unit were integrated to compare time loss and selected sub-techniques as a function of speed. Compared to male/female AB skiers, male/female Para skiers displayed 19/14% slower average speed with the largest time loss (65 ± 36/35 ± 6 s/lap) found in uphill terrain. Female Para/AB skiers utilized DP, DK, and DIA, 61/43%, 15/10%, and 25/47% of the distance at low speeds, respectively, while the corresponding numbers for male Para/AB skiers were 58/18%, 1/13%, and 40/69%. At higher speeds, female Para/AB skiers utilized DP and OTHER, 26/52% and 74/48% of the distance, respectively, while corresponding numbers for male Para/AB skiers were 29/66% and 71/34%. This indicates different speed thresholds of the classical sub-techniques for Para than AB skiers. The framework provides a point of departure for large-scale international investigations of performance and related factors in Para XC skiing.
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The Effect of Resistance Exercise Priming in the Morning on Afternoon Sprint Cross-Country Skiing Performance. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1786-1793. [PMID: 34021095 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE We tested whether a single session of heavy-load resistance priming conducted in the morning improved double-poling (DP) performance in the afternoon. METHODS Eight national-level male cross-country skiers (mean [SD]: 23 [3] y, 184 [6] cm, 73 [7] kg, maximum oxygen consumption = 69 [6] mL·kg-1·min-1) carried out 2 days of afternoon performance tests. In the morning, 5 hours before tests, subjects were counterbalanced to either a session of 3 × 3 repetitions (approximately 85%-90% 1-repetition maximum) of squat and sitting pullover exercises or no exercise. The performance was evaluated in DP as time to exhaustion (TTE) (approximately 3 min) on a treadmill and 30-m indoor sprints before and after TTE (30-m DP pre/post). Furthermore, submaximal DP oxygen cost, countermovement jump, and isometric knee-extension force during electrical stimulation were conducted. Participants reported perceived readiness on test days. RESULTS Resistance exercise session versus no exercise did not differ for TTE (approximately 3 min above) (mean ± 95% confidence interval = 3.6% ± 6.0%; P = .29; effect size [ES], Cohen d = 0.27), 30-m DP pre (-0.56% ± 0.80%; P = .21; ES = 0.20), 30-m DP post (-0.18% ± 1.13%; P = .76; ES = 0.03), countermovement jump (-2.0% ± 2.8%; P = .21; ES = 0.12), DP oxygen cost (-0.13% ± 2.04%; P = .91; ES = 0.02), or perceived readiness (P ≥ .11). Electrical stimulation force was not different in contraction or relaxation time but revealed low-frequency fatigue in the afternoon for the resistance exercise session only (-12% [7%]; P = .01; ES = 1.3). CONCLUSION A single session of heavy-load, low-volume resistance exercise in the morning did not increase afternoon DP performance of short duration in high-level skiers. However, leg low-frequency fatigue after resistance priming, together with the presence of small positive effects in 2 out of 3 DP tests, may indicate that the preconditioning was too strenuous.
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Comparison of Physiological and Biomechanical Responses to Flat and Uphill Cross-Country Sit-Skiing in Able-Bodied Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:1596-1602. [PMID: 33831842 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2020-0752] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Revised: 12/04/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare peak work rate (WRpeak) and associated physiological and biomechanical performance-determining variables between flat and uphill cross-country (XC) sit-skiing. METHODS Fifteen able-bodied male XC skiers completed 2 test sessions, each comprising four 4-minute submaximal stages, followed by an incremental test to exhaustion and a verification test in a sit-ski on a roller-ski treadmill. The test sessions were counterbalanced by the incline, being either 0.5% (FLAT) or 5% (UPHILL). The authors compared WRpeak and peak oxygen uptake, as well as physiological variables, rating of perceived exertion, gross efficiency, and cycle characteristics at identical submaximal work rate, between FLAT and UPHILL. RESULTS In UPHILL, WRpeak was 35% higher compared to FLAT (P < .001), despite no difference in peak oxygen uptake (P = .9). The higher WRpeak in UPHILL was achieved through more work per cycle, which was enabled by the twice as long poling time, compared to FLAT (P < .001). Submaximal gross efficiency was 0.5 to 2 percentage points lower in FLAT compared to UPHILL (P < .001), with an increasing difference as work rate increased (P < .001). Neither cycle rate nor work per cycle differed between inclines when compared at identical submaximal work rate (P > .16). CONCLUSIONS The longer poling times utilized in uphill XC sit-skiing enable more work per cycle and better gross efficiency, thereby allowing skiers to achieve a higher WRpeak compared to flat XC sit-skiing. However, the similar values of peak oxygen uptake between inclines indicate that XC sit-skiers can tax their cardiorespiratory capacity similarly in both conditions.
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A heat and moisture-exchanging mask impairs self-paced maximal running performance in a sub-zero environment. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:1979-1992. [PMID: 33782715 PMCID: PMC8192396 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04666-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/05/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Heat-and-moisture-exchanging devices (HME) are commonly used by endurance athletes during training in sub-zero environments, but their effects on performance are unknown. We investigated the influence of HME usage on running performance at − 15 °C. Methods Twenty-three healthy adults (15 male, 8 female; age 18–53 years; \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$\dot{V}{\text O}_{2peak}$$\end{document}V˙O2peak men 56 ± 7, women 50 ± 4 mL·kg−1·min−1) performed two treadmill exercise tests with and without a mask-style HME in a randomised, crossover design. Participants performed a 30-min submaximal warm-up (SUB), followed by a 4-min maximal, self-paced running time-trial (TT). Heart rate (HR), respiratory frequency (fR), and thoracic area skin temperature (Tsk) were monitored using a chest-strap device; muscle oxygenation (SmO2) and deoxyhaemoglobin concentration ([HHb]) were derived from near-infra-red-spectroscopy sensors on m. vastus lateralis; blood lactate was measured 2 min before and after the TT. Results HME usage reduced distance covered in the TT by 1.4%, despite similar perceived exertion, HR, fR, and lactate accumulation. The magnitude of the negative effect of the HME on performance was positively associated with body mass (r2 = 0.22). SmO2 and [HHb] were 3.1% lower and 0.35 arb. unit higher, respectively, during the TT with HME, and Tsk was 0.66 °C higher during the HME TT in men. HR (+ 2.7 beats·min−1) and Tsk (+ 0.34 °C) were higher during SUB with HME. In the male participants, SmO2 was 3.8% lower and [HHb] 0.42 arb. unit higher during SUB with HME. Conclusion Our findings suggest that HME usage impairs maximal running performance and increases the physiological demands of submaximal exercise.
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Seeberg TM, Kocbach J, Danielsen J, Noordhof DA, Skovereng K, Haugnes P, Tjønnås J, Sandbakk Ø. Physiological and Biomechanical Determinants of Sprint Ability Following Variable Intensity Exercise When Roller Ski Skating. Front Physiol 2021; 12:638499. [PMID: 33841176 PMCID: PMC8027482 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.638499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The most common race format in cross-country (XC) skiing is the mass-start event, which is under-explored in the scientific literature. To explore factors important for XC skiing mass-starts, the main purpose of this study was to investigate physiological and biomechanical determinants of sprint ability following variable intensity exercise when roller ski skating. Thirteen elite male XC skiers performed a simulated mass-start competition while roller ski skating on a treadmill. The protocol consisted of an initial 21-min bout with a varying track profile, designed as a competition track with preset inclines and speeds, directly followed by an all-out sprint (AOS) with gradually increased speed to rank their performance. The initial part was projected to simulate the “stay-in-the-group” condition during a mass-start, while the AOS was designed to assess the residual physiological capacities required to perform well during the final part of a mass-start race. Cardiorespiratory variables, kinematics and pole forces were measured continuously, and the cycles were automatically detected and classified into skating sub-techniques through a machine learning model. Better performance ranking was associated with higher VO2Max (r = 0.68) and gross efficiency (r = 0.70) measured on separate days, as well as the ability to ski on a lower relative intensity [i.e., %HRMax (r = 0.87), %VO2Max (r = 0.89), and rating of perceived exertion (r = 0.73)] during the initial 21-min of the simulated mass-start (all p-values < 0.05). Accordingly, the ability to increase HR (r = 0.76) and VO2 (r = 0.72), beyond the corresponding values achieved during the initial 21-min, in the AOS correlated positively with performance (both p < 0.05). In addition, greater utilization of the G3 sub-technique in the steepest uphill (r = 0.69, p < 0.05), as well as a trend for longer cycle lengths (CLs) during the AOS (r = 0.52, p = 0.07), were associated with performance. In conclusion, VO2Max and gross efficiency were the most significant performance-determining variables of simulated mass-start performance, enabling lower relative intensity and less accumulation of fatigue before entering the final AOS. Subsequently, better performance ranking was associated with more utilization of the demanding G3 sub-technique in the steepest uphill, and physiological reserves allowing better-performing skiers to utilize a larger portion of their aerobic potential and achieve longer CLs and higher speed during the AOS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Trine M Seeberg
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway.,Smart Sensor Systems, SINTEF Digital, Oslo, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jørgen Danielsen
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Dionne A Noordhof
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Knut Skovereng
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Pål Haugnes
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | | | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Marsland F, Anson JM, Waddington G, Holmberg HC, Chapman DW. Comparisons of Macro-Kinematic Strategies During the Rounds of a Cross-Country Skiing Sprint Competition in Classic Technique. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 2:546205. [PMID: 33585810 PMCID: PMC7876231 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.546205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2020] [Accepted: 12/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
This study was designed to examine macro-kinematic parameters of six female cross-country skiers during the qualifying, semi-final and final rounds of a 1.1 km sprint competition in classical technique. During each round these skiers were monitored continuously with a single micro-sensor, and their cycle parameters and relative use of these two sub-techniques calculated. Within each round six sections of the course, during which all skiers employed either double pole (DP) or diagonal stride (DS) sub-technique, were chosen for additional analysis. The mean macro-kinematic cycle parameters and relative usage of sub-techniques over the full course did not differ significantly between rounds. On average 54% of the course was covered employing DP and 13% using DS, while 32% was covered utilizing a non-cyclical or irregular technique. With DP, the mean racing speed and cycle rate (CR) on the starting, middle and finishing sections of the course differed significantly, with no differences in mean cycle length (CL) between the last two sections. At the finish, higher DP speed was achieved by increasing CR. On the three hills, where all athletes utilized DS, mean racing speed and CL, but not mean CR, differed significantly. On these sections DS speed was increased by utilizing longer cycles. The individual skiers utilized a variety of macro-kinematic strategies during different rounds and on different sections of the course, depending on individual strengths, preferences and pacing strategies, as well as the course topography and tactical interactions with other skiers. Such collection of macro-kinematic data during competitions can help to identify an individual skier's strengths and weaknesses, guiding the testing of different cycle rates, and lengths on different terrains during training in order to optimize performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Finn Marsland
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Judith Mary Anson
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | - Gordon Waddington
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia
| | | | - Dale Wilson Chapman
- UC Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Bruce, ACT, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, ACT, Australia
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Talsnes RK, Hetland TA, Cai X, Sandbakk Ø. Development of Performance, Physiological and Technical Capacities During a Six-Month Cross-Country Skiing Talent Transfer Program in Endurance Athletes. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:103. [PMID: 33345092 PMCID: PMC7739832 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2020] [Accepted: 07/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: To examine the development of performance, physiological and technical capacities as well as the effect of sport background among runners, kayakers and rowers when transferred to cross-country (XC) skiing over a 6-month training period. Methods: Twenty-four endurance athletes (15 runners and 9 rowers/kayakers; 15 men and 9 women) were tested for performance, physiological and technical capacities during treadmill running and roller-ski skating, double-poling ergometry, as well as upper-body, one-repetition maximum-strength (1 RM) at baseline (pre) after three (mid) and 6-months (post) of XC ski-specific training. Results: Peak treadmill speed when roller-ski skating improved significantly (13%, P < 0.01) from pre-post, with a larger improvement in runners than in kayakers/rowers (16 vs. 9%, P < 0.05), whereas peak speed in running was unchanged. Average power output during 5-min and 30-s ergometer double-poling tests improved by 8% and 5% (both P < 0.01), with improvement found only in runners on the 30-s test (8 vs. −2% in kayakers/rowers, P < 0.01). Peak oxygen uptake (VO2peak) in running and double-poling ergometry did not improve, whereas VO2peak in roller-ski skating improved by 5% in runners (P < 0.05). Submaximal gross efficiency increased by 0.6%-point and cycle length by 13%, whereas 1 RM in seated pull-down and triceps press increased by 12 and 11%, respectively (all P < 0.05). Conclusion: Six-months of XC ski-specific training induced large improvements in sport-specific performance which were associated with better skiing efficiency, longer cycle length, and greater 1RM upper-body strength in a group of endurance athletes transferring to XC skiing. Furthermore, larger sport-specific development was found in runners compared to kayakers/rowers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer, Norway.,Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Tor-Arne Hetland
- Meråker High School, Trøndelag County Council, Steinkjer, Norway
| | - Xudan Cai
- School of Physical Education and Sport Training, Shanghai University of Sport, Shanghai, China.,Olympic Games Preparation Office, Chinese Olympic Committee, Beijing, China
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Ihalainen S, Colyer S, Andersson E, McGawley K. Performance and Micro-Pacing Strategies in a Classic Cross-Country Skiing Sprint Race. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:77. [PMID: 33345068 PMCID: PMC7739622 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 05/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to analyze micro-pacing strategies in cross-country skiing, and their relation to section and total race times. Eleven competitive female cross-country skiers were tracked during a classic sprint time-trial race using a global navigation satellite system (GNSS) unit. A coordinate mapping procedure was applied to the GNSS unit measurements to analyze the instantaneous velocities and split times. The track was divided into nine sections and individual section times were calculated. Statistical parametric mapping (SPM) was used to analyze the relationships between instantaneous velocity and section or total race time. SPM analyses revealed two uphill sections and one flat section where greater instantaneous velocities were related to faster total race times. The first major uphill section on the track demonstrated a more conservative micro-pacing strategy (SPM supra-threshold clusters along the entire uphill, p < 0.05-0.001) compared to the more aggressive strategy used in the last uphill section (clusters on the first half of the uphill, p < 0.05-0.001). Faster flat section times were associated with greater instantaneous velocities throughout the section (p < 0.001), while faster downhill section times were related to greater instantaneous velocities at the top of the downhill (p < 0.001), and in the downhill turns (p < 0.001). In conclusion, micro-pacing strategies were related to overall skiing performance and distinct track sections were identified where instantaneous velocities were related to section or total race times. In order to improve skiing performance, athletes could focus on more aggressive pacing early on in the "end spurt", during the transitions from uphill to flat sections, and during the transitions from flat or uphill to downhill sections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simo Ihalainen
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden.,Research Institute for Olympic Sports, Jyväskylä, Finland
| | - Steffi Colyer
- Department for Health, University of Bath, Bath, United Kingdom
| | - Erik Andersson
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
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Luchsinger H, Talsnes RK, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Analysis of a Biathlon Sprint Competition and Associated Laboratory Determinants of Performance. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 1:60. [PMID: 33344983 PMCID: PMC7739577 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Biathlon is an Olympic winter-sport where cross-country (XC) skiing in the skating technique is combined with rifle shooting. In the biathlon sprint competition for men, three laps of 3.3-km are interspersed with a 5-shot shooting sequence in the prone and standing position. Our purpose was to investigate the contribution from overall XC skiing performance, the performance in different terrain sections and shooting performance to the overall biathlon sprint race performance, as well as the relationship to laboratory-measured capacities obtained during treadmill roller ski skating. Eleven elite male biathletes were tracked by a Global Positioning System (GPS) device and a heart rate (HR) monitor during an international 10-km biathlon sprint competition. Within a period of 6 weeks prior to the competition, physiological responses, and performance during submaximal and maximal treadmill roller skiing were measured. Stepwise multiple regression analysis revealed that XC skiing time, shooting performance, shooting time and range time explained 84, 14, 1.8, and 0.2% of the overall sprint race performance (all p < 0.01). Time in uphill, varied, and downhill terrains were all significantly correlated to the total XC skiing time (r = 0.95, 0.82, 0.72, respectively, all p < 0.05). Percent of maximal HR (HRmax) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during submaximal roller skiing, and time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing correlated significantly with overall biathlon sprint race performance and overall XC skiing time (r = 0.64–0.95, all p < 0.05). In conclusion, XC skiing performance provided greatest impact on biathlon sprint performance, with most of the variance determined by XC skiing performance in the uphill terrain sections. Furthermore, the ability to roller ski with a low RPE and %HRmax during submaximal speeds, as well as time-to-exhaustion during incremental roller skiing significantly predicted biathlon performance. Such laboratory-derived measures may therefore be validly used to distinguish biathletes of different performance levels and to track progress of their XC skiing capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harri Luchsinger
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rune Kjøsen Talsnes
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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Pla R, Pujos-Guillot E, Durand S, Brandolini-Bunlon M, Centeno D, Pyne DB, Toussaint JF, Hellard P. Non-targeted metabolomics analyses by mass spectrometry to explore metabolic stress after six training weeks in high level swimmers. J Sports Sci 2020; 39:969-978. [PMID: 33320058 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1851933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
The objective was to compare the metabolic responses of high-level national swimmers to threshold or polarised training. 22 swimmers (n = 12 males and 10 females) participated in a 28-week cross-over intervention study consisting of 2 × 6 period weeks of training. Swimmers were assigned randomly to either training group for the first period: polarised (POL) (81% in energetic zone 1: blood lactate [La]b ≤ 2 mmol.L-1; 4% in zone 2: 2 mmol.L-1 <[La]b ≤ 4 mmol.L-1; 15% in zone 3: [La]b > 4 mmol.L-1) or threshold (THR) (65%/25%/10%). Before and after each training period, urine samples were collected for non-targeted metabolomics analysis. Mixed model analysis was performed on metabolomics data including fatigue class factors and/or training and/or interaction. Ion intensities of 6-keto-decanoylcarnitine (+31%), pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (+81%), P-cresol sulphate (+18%) were higher in the threshold group (P < 0.05) indicating higher glycogenic depletion and inflammation without alteration of the neuroendocrine stress axis. 4-phenylbutanic acid sulphate was 200% higher in less fatigued swimmers (P < 0.01) linking the anti-inflammatory activity at the cell membrane level to the subjective perception of fatigue. This research suggests the importance of replenishing glycogen stores and reducing inflammation during high thresholds training loads.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robin Pla
- French Institute of Sport (INSEP), Research Department, Laboratory Sport, Expertise and Performance (EA 7370), Paris, France.,French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France.,Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport (IRMES), Paris, France
| | - Estelle Pujos-Guillot
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRA, UNH, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme, MetaboHUB Clermont, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Stéphanie Durand
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRA, UNH, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme, MetaboHUB Clermont, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Marion Brandolini-Bunlon
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRA, UNH, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme, MetaboHUB Clermont, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Delphine Centeno
- Université Clermont Auvergne, INRA, UNH, Plateforme d'Exploration du Métabolisme, MetaboHUB Clermont, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - David B Pyne
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra, Canberra, Australia
| | - Jean-François Toussaint
- Institut de Recherche bioMédicale et d'Epidémiologie du Sport (IRMES), Paris, France.,EA 7329, Université Paris Descartes, Paris, France.,CIMS, Centre for Investigation in Sports Medicine Paris, Paris, France
| | - Philippe Hellard
- French Swimming Federation, Clichy, France.,CREPS- Sport Resource and Expertise Center, Bordeaux, France
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Performance-Determining Variables in Long-Distance Events: Should They Be Determined From a Rested State or After Prolonged Submaximal Exercise? Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 16:647-654. [PMID: 33291068 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 06/05/2020] [Accepted: 06/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Performance-determining variables are usually measured from a rested state and not after prolonged exercise, specific to when athletes compete for the win in long-distance events. PURPOSE (1) To compare cross-country skiing double-poling (DP) performance and the associated physiological and biomechanical performance-determining variables between a rested state and after prolonged exercise and (2) to investigate whether the relationship between the main performance-determining variables and DP performance is different after prolonged submaximal DP than when tested from a rested state. METHODS Male cross-country skiers (N = 26) performed a blood lactate profile test and an incremental test to exhaustion from a rested state on day 1 (D1; all using DP) and after 90-minute submaximal DP on day 2 (D2). RESULTS The DP performance decreased following prolonged submaximal DP (D1: peak speed = 15.33-20.75 km·h-1, median = 18.1 km·h-1; D2: peak speed = 13.68-19.77 km·h-1, median = 17.8 km·h-1; z = -3.96, P < .001, effect size r = -.77), which coincided with a reduced submaximal gross efficiency and submaximal and peak cycle length, with no significant change in peak oxygen uptake (P = .26, r = .23). The correlation coefficient between D1 cycle length at 12 km·h-1 and D2 performance is significantly smaller than the correlation coefficient between D2 cycle length at 12 km·h-1 and D2 performance (P = .033), with the same result being found for peak cycle length (P < .001). CONCLUSIONS The reduced DP performance after prolonged submaximal DP coincided with a reduced submaximal gross efficiency and shorter peak cycle length. The results indicate that performance-determining variables could be determined after prolonged exercise to gain more valid insight into long-distance DP performance.
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Pavailler S, Hintzy F, Millet GY, Horvais N, Samozino P. Glide Time Relates to Mediolateral Plantar Pressure Distribution Rather Than Ski Edging in Ski Skating. Front Sports Act Living 2020; 2:117. [PMID: 33345106 PMCID: PMC7739643 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2020.00117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of this study was (i) to assess the differences in relative glide time and both ski edging angle and plantar pressure mediolateral distribution in skiers of different levels and (ii) to further investigate the relationships between the aforementioned variables. Twelve male cross-country skiers (6 national and 6 regional level) skied at 4.2 m s−1 on a 2.5° uphill snow track using the V2 technique. The relative glide time (in percentage of contact time) and mediolateral plantar pressure distribution variables (asymmetry index, ASI) were derived from pressure insole measurements. Ski edging angle variables were calculated from an Inertial Measurement Unit placed on the ski. Minimum, maximum, mean, and range of both ASI and ski edging angle were computed over the gliding phase, giving information about the beginning, end, and throughout the gliding phase. Relative glide time was significantly higher, and minimum and mean ASI were significantly lower in the national- than in the regional-level skiers. Relative glide time was strongly negatively correlated to minimum ASI (i.e., plantar pressure mostly on the foot lateral side at the beginning of gliding phase) and strongly positively correlated to ASI range. These results may reflect a larger body mass transfer above the ski from the beginning of the gliding phase to increase gliding, especially in the national-level skiers. Ski edging angle seems less relevant to discriminate skiers' level of performance. These results have direct consequences on how technique must be taught to young cross-country skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sébastien Pavailler
- Sport Sciences Laboratory, Footwear Department, Salomon SAS, 14 Chemin des Croiselets, Épagny Metz-Tessy, France
- Univ Savoie Mont Blanc, Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, Chambéry, France
- *Correspondence: Sébastien Pavailler
| | - Frédérique Hintzy
- Univ Savoie Mont Blanc, Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, Chambéry, France
| | - Guillaume Y. Millet
- Univ Lyon, UJM-Saint-Etienne, Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, Saint-Etienne, France
- Institut Universitaire de France (IUF), Paris, France
| | - Nicolas Horvais
- Sport Sciences Laboratory, Footwear Department, Salomon SAS, 14 Chemin des Croiselets, Épagny Metz-Tessy, France
| | - Pierre Samozino
- Univ Savoie Mont Blanc, Inter-University Laboratory of Human Movement Biology, Chambéry, France
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Solli GS, Haugnes P, Kocbach J, van den Tillaar R, Torvik PØ, Sandbakk Ø. The Effects of a Short Specific Versus a Long Traditional Warm-Up on Time-Trial Performance in Cross-Country Skiing Sprint. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2020; 15:941-948. [PMID: 32182587 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2019] [Revised: 09/29/2019] [Accepted: 10/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE To compare the effects of a short specific and a long traditional warm-up on time-trial performance in cross-country skiing sprint using the skating style, as well as related differences in pacing strategy and physiological responses. METHODS In total, 14 (8 men and 6 women) national-level Norwegian cross-country skiers (age 20.4 [3.1] y; VO2max 65.9 [5.7] mL/kg/min) performed 2 types of warm-up (short, 8 × 100 m with gradual increase from 60% to 95% of maximal speed with a 1-min rest between sprints, and long, ∼35 min at low intensity, including 5 min at moderate and 3 min at high intensity) in a randomized order with 1 hour and 40 minutes of rest between tests. Each warm-up was followed by a 1.3-km sprint time trial, with continuous measurements of speed and heart rate. RESULTS No difference in total time for the time trial between the short and long warm-ups (199 [17] vs 200 [16] s; P = .952), or average speed and heart rate for the total course, or in the 6 terrain sections (all P < .41, η2 < .06) was found. There was an effect of order, with total time-trial time being shorter during test 2 than test 1 (197 [16] vs 202 [16] s; P = .004). No significant difference in blood lactate and rating of perceived exertion was found between the short versus long warm-ups or between test 1 and test 2 at any of the measurement points during the test day (P < .58, η2 > .01). CONCLUSIONS This study indicates that a short specific warm-up could be as effective as a long traditional warm-up during a sprint time trial in cross-country skiing.
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Grzebisz N. Cardiovascular Adaptations to Four Months Training in Middle-Aged Amateur Long-Distance Skiers. Diagnostics (Basel) 2020; 10:diagnostics10070442. [PMID: 32629784 PMCID: PMC7399923 DOI: 10.3390/diagnostics10070442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2020] [Revised: 06/26/2020] [Accepted: 06/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-country skiing has a positive effect on health. However, without an individual, thoughtful, and professional plan, it can cause irreversible health problems from overload and injury. The impact of exercise on results is well understood within the group of professional athletes. However, this remains unknown within the group of amateur cross-country skiers and marathon runners—in particular, the impact of the summer preparation period in which training loads performed in the oxygen zone combined with resistance training dominate. The aim of this study was to assess changes in the cardiovascular capacity and body mass composition of male cross-country skiers in the preparation period of their macrocycle. Variables were analyzed using basic descriptive statistics: mean and standard deviation (SD). To compare the results from both measurements (initial and final) the paired Wilcoxon test was used. A statistically significant increase was noted in maximum oxygen uptake and maximum minute ventilation, and a decrease in body fat content, maximum lactate concentration and lactate threshold, and heart rate on anaerobic threshold. Research indicated that in the amateur group increases similar to those in top competitors were achieved in the parameters tested, but the initial level was often significantly lower.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Grzebisz
- Vistula School of Hospitality, Faculty of Dietetics, 02-787 Warsaw, Poland
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Zoppirolli C, Hébert-Losier K, Holmberg HC, Pellegrini B. Biomechanical determinants of cross-country skiing performance: A systematic review. J Sports Sci 2020; 38:2127-2148. [PMID: 32552520 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2020.1775375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Cross-country skiing is a complex endurance sport requiring technical skills, in addition to considerable physiological and tactical abilities. This review aims to identify biomechanical factors that influence the performance of cross-country skiers. Four electronic databases were searched systematically for original articles in peer-reviewed journals addressing the relationship between biomechanical factors (including kinematics, kinetics, and muscle activation) and performance while skiing on snow or roller skiing. Of the 46 articles included, 22 focused exclusively on the classical technique, 18 on the skating technique, and six on both. The indicators of performance were: results from actual or simulated races (9 articles); speed on specific tracts (6 articles); maximal or peak speed (11 articles); skiing economy or efficiency (11 articles); and grouping on the basis of performance or level of skill (12 articles). The main findings were that i) cycle length, most often considered as a major determinant of skiing speed, is also related to skiing economy and level of performance; ii) higher cycle rate related with maximal speed capacity, while self-selected cycle rate improves skiing economy at sub-maximal speeds; iii) cross-country skiing performance appears to be improved by joint, whole-body, ski, and pole kinematics that promote forward propulsion while minimizing unnecessary movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Zoppirolli
- CeRiSM, University of Verona , Rovereto, Italy.,Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement Science Department, University of Verona , Verona, Italy
| | - Kim Hébert-Losier
- Division of Health, Engineering, Computing and Science, Te Huataki Waiora School of Health, University of Waikato , Tauranga, New Zealand
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University , Östersund, Sweden.,School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia , Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.,Biomechanics Laboratory, Beijing Sport University , Beijing, China
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The Interval-Based Physiological and Mechanical Demands of Cross-Country Ski Training. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:1371-1377. [PMID: 30958055 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-1007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2019] [Revised: 03/10/2019] [Accepted: 03/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To investigate fluctuations in speed, work rate, and heart rate (HR) when cross-country ski skating across varying terrains at different endurance-training intensities. METHODS Seven male junior Norwegian skiers performed maximal-speed (Vmax) tests in both flat and uphill terrains. Thereafter, 5-km sessions at low (LIT), moderate (MIT), and high intensity (HIT) were performed based on their own perception of intensity while monitored by a global navigation satellite system with integrated barometry and accompanying HR monitor. RESULTS Speed, HR, and rating of perceived exertion gradually increased from LIT to MIT and HIT, both for the total course and in flat and uphill terrains (all P < .05). Uphill work rates (214 [24] W, 298 [27] W, and 350 [54] W for LIT, MIT, and HIT, respectively) and the corresponding percentage of maximal HR (79.2% [6.1]%, 88.3% [2.4]%, and 91.0% [1.7]%) were higher than in flat terrain (159 [16] W, 206 [19] W, and 233 [72] W vs 72.3% [6.3]%, 83.2% [2.3]%, and 87.4% [2.0]% for LIT, MIT, and HIT, respectively) (all P < .01). In general, ∼13% point lower utilization of maximal work rate was reached in uphill than in flat terrain at all intensities (all P < .01). CONCLUSIONS Cross-country ski training across varying terrains is clearly interval based in terms of speed, external work rate, and metabolic intensity for all endurance-training intensities. Although work rate and HR were highest in uphill terrain at all intensities, the utilization of maximal work rate was higher in flat terrain. This demonstrates the large potential for generating external work rate when uphill skiing and the corresponding downregulation of effort due to the metabolic limitations.
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Laukkanen JA, Kunutsor SK, Ozemek C, Mäkikallio T, Lee DC, Wisloff U, Lavie CJ. Cross-country skiing and running's association with cardiovascular events and all-cause mortality: A review of the evidence. Prog Cardiovasc Dis 2019; 62:505-514. [PMID: 31505192 DOI: 10.1016/j.pcad.2019.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
A large body of evidence demonstrates positive, graded effects of PA on cardiovascular disease (CVD) morbidity and mortality with increasing intensity compared with lower PA intensity. Running is often designated as a high-intensity PA with substantial evidence supporting its health benefits. Cross-country skiing is among the most demanding aerobic endurance exercises and requires engaging the upper- and lower-body. Cross-country skiing is often regarded as high-intensity PA, which has been associated with significant health benefits. However, a robust body of evidence identifying the dose-response relation between cross-country skiing volume and health outcomes is sparse. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the available evidence linking cross-country skiing with CVD morbidity and all-cause mortality; postulated pathways that may elucidate the relation between these associations; outline areas of ongoing uncertainty; and the implications for primary and secondary CVD prevention. To put the findings into perspective, we also summarized the evidence linking running with CVD morbidity and all-cause mortality. Though a head-to-head comparison is not available, the evidence indicates that performing PA as cross-country skiing associates with lower mortality risk when compared with that observed in those undertaking their PA as running. Potential adverse effects of extreme high weekly doses of cross-country skiing over decades may be cardiac arrhythmias, such as atrial fibrillation. Evidence suggests that cross-country skiing may reduce the risk of CVD events and all-cause mortality via anti-inflammatory pathways, improvements in endothelial function and reduced levels of CVD risk factors, such as lipids, glucose, and blood pressure; and enhancement of cardiorespiratory fitness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jari A Laukkanen
- Institute of Public Health and Clinical Nutrition, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland; Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland; Department of Medicine, Central Finland Health Care District, Jyväskylä, Finland.
| | - Setor K Kunutsor
- National Institute for Health Research Bristol Biomedical Research Centre, University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust and University of Bristol, Bristol, UK; Musculoskeletal Research Unit, Translational Health Sciences, Bristol Medical School, University of Bristol, Learning & Research Building (Level 1), Southmead Hospital, Bristol, UK
| | - Cemal Ozemek
- Department of Physical Therapy, College of Applied Health Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Timo Mäkikallio
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine, Oulu University Hospital, Oulu, Finland
| | - Duck-Chul Lee
- Department of Kinesiology, College of Human Sciences, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, USA
| | - Ulrik Wisloff
- Cardiac Exercise Research Group, Department of Circulation and Medical Imaging, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway; School of Human Movement & Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Australia
| | - Carl J Lavie
- Department of Cardiovascular Diseases, Ochsner Clinical School, The University of Queensland School of Medicine, New Orleans, LA, USA
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Baumgart JK, Haugnes P, Bardal LM, Østerås S, Kocbach J, Sandbakk Ø. Development of a Framework for the Investigation of Speed, Power, and Kinematic Patterns in Para Cross-Country Sit-Skiing: A Case Study of an LW12 Athlete. Front Sports Act Living 2019; 1:4. [PMID: 33344928 PMCID: PMC7739709 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2019.00004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2019] [Accepted: 07/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective: To develop a framework for the investigation of speed, power, and kinematic patterns across varying terrain in cross-country (XC) sit-skiing, and to test this framework in a XC sit-skier of the LW12 class during high- (HIT) and low-intensity (LIT) endurance training. Methods: One XC sit-skiing athlete of the LW12 class with a single above-the-knee amputation was equipped with a GNSS enabled sports watch with integrated barometry and heart rate monitoring (peak heart rate: 195 beats·min−1), and an inertial measurement unit. After a warm-up, he performed two 20-m maximal speed tests on a flat and an uphill section to determine maximal speed and power, followed by skiing 5.75 km at both LIT and HIT in varying terrain. Results: 51, 28, and 21% of the time during HIT and 53, 28, and 19% of the time during LIT were spent in uphill, flat and downhill terrain, respectively. Maximal speed in the uphill and flat section was 4.0 and 6.2 m·s−1, respectively, and the corresponding maximal power output 342 and 252 W. The % of maximal speed did not differ between the uphill and the flat section (HIT: 66 vs. 67%, LIT: 47 vs. 50%), whereas the % of maximal power output was lower in the uphill than flat section (HIT: 65 and 80%, LIT: 46 and 58%). Still, the absolute power output was slightly higher in the uphill than the flat section (HIT: 222 vs. 201 W, LIT: 156 vs. 145 W). Furthermore, cycle rate was significantly higher during HIT than LIT (60–61 vs. 45–55 cycles·min−1, across all terrains, all p < 0.03), while cycle length was longer in the uphill terrain (3.0 vs. 2.6 m, p < 0.001). Furthermore, the % of peak heart rate was significantly higher in HIT than LIT (90 vs. 78, 85 vs. 67, and 88 vs. 66%, respectively, in the uphill, flat and downhill terrain, all p < 0.001). Conclusions: Here, we present a new integrative framework for future investigations of performance, technical and physical demands in XC sit-skiing. In this case study, the increase in speed from LIT to HIT was due to increases in cycle rate in all terrains, while cycle length was less affected. Although the absolute power output was slightly higher in the uphill compared to the flat section both for HIT and LIT, the athlete worked closer to his maximum power output in the flat section.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Kathrin Baumgart
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Pål Haugnes
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Lars Morten Bardal
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, Centre for Sports Facilities and Technology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Sindre Østerås
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Centre for Elite Sports Research, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
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The Effect of Maximal Speed Ability, Pacing Strategy, and Technique on the Finish Sprint of a Sprint Cross-Country Skiing Competition. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2019; 14:788–795. [PMID: 30569776 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2018-0507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: To investigate the contribution from maximal speed (Vmax) and %Vmax to the finish sprint speed obtained in a cross-country sprint in the classical and skating style, as well as the coinciding changes in kinematic patterns and the effect of pacing strategy on the %Vmax. Methods: Twelve elite male cross-country skiers performed two 80-m Vmax tests on flat terrain using the classical double-poling and skating G3 techniques, followed by 4 simulated 1.4-km sprint time trials, performed with conservative (controlled start) and positive (hard start) pacing strategies in both styles with a randomized order. In all cases, these time trials were finalized by sprinting maximally over the last 80 m (the Vmax section). Results: Approximately 85% of Vmax was obtained in the finish sprint of the 1.4-km competitions, with Vmax and %Vmax contributing similarly (R2 = 51-78%) to explain the overall variance in finish sprint speed in all 4 cases (P < .05). The changes in kinematic pattern from the Vmax to the finish sprint included 11-22% reduced cycle rate in both styles (P < .01), without any changes in cycle length. A 3.6% faster finish sprint speed, explained by higher cycle rate, was found by conservative pacing in classic style (P < .001), whereas no difference was seen in skating. Conclusions: Vmax ability and %Vmax contributed similarly to explain the finish sprint speed, both in the classic and skating styles, and independent of pacing strategy. Therefore, sprint cross-country skiers should concurrently develop both these capacities and employ technical strategies where a high cycle rate can be sustained when fatigue occurs.
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Losnegard T. Energy system contribution during competitive cross-country skiing. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:1675-1690. [PMID: 31076890 PMCID: PMC6647095 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04158-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 05/03/2019] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Energy system contribution during cross-country (XC) skiing races is dependent on several factors, including the race duration, track profile, and sub-techniques applied, and their subsequent effects on the use of the upper and lower body. This review provides a scientific synopsis of the interactions of energy system contributions from a physiological, technical, and tactical perspective. On average, the aerobic proportion of the total energy expended during XC skiing competitions is comparable to the values for other sports with similar racing times. However, during both sprint (≤ 1.8 km) and distance races (≥ 10 and 15 km, women and men, respectively) a high aerobic turnover interacts with subsequent periods of very high work rates at ~ 120 to 160% of VO2peak during the uphill sections of the race. The repeated intensity fluctuations are possible due to the nature of skiing, which involves intermittent downhills where skiers can recover. Thus, the combination of high and sustained aerobic energy turnover and repeated work rates above VO2peak, interspersed with short recovery periods, distinguishes XC skiing from most other endurance sports. The substantially increased average speed in races over recent decades, frequent competitions in mass starts and sprints, and the greater importance of short periods at high speeds in various sub-techniques, have demanded changes in the physiological, technical, and tactical abilities needed to achieve world-class level within the specific disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Ullevål Stadion, Post box 4014, 0806, Oslo, Norway.
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Nutritional Intake in Elite Cross-Country Skiers During Two Days of Training and Competition. Int J Sport Nutr Exerc Metab 2019; 29:273-281. [DOI: 10.1123/ijsnem.2017-0411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Gløersen Ø, Losnegard T, Malthe-Sørenssen A, Dysthe DK, Gilgien M. Propulsive Power in Cross-Country Skiing: Application and Limitations of a Novel Wearable Sensor-Based Method During Roller Skiing. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1631. [PMID: 30524298 PMCID: PMC6256136 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cross-country skiing is an endurance sport that requires extremely high maximal aerobic power. Due to downhill sections where the athletes can recover, skiers must also have the ability to perform repeated efforts where metabolic power substantially exceeds maximal aerobic power. Since the duration of these supra-aerobic efforts is often in the order of seconds, heart rate, and pulmonary VO2 do not adequately reflect instantaneous metabolic power. Propulsive power (P prop) is an alternative parameter that can be used to estimate metabolic power, but the validity of such calculations during cross-country skiing has rarely been addressed. The aim of this study was therefore twofold: to develop a procedure using small non-intrusive sensors attached to the athlete for estimating P prop during roller-skiing and to evaluate its limits; and (2) to utilize this procedure to determine the P prop generated by high-level skiers during a simulated distance race. Eight elite male cross-country skiers simulated a 15 km individual distance race on roller skis using ski skating techniques on a course (13.5 km) similar to World Cup skiing courses. P prop was calculated using a combination of standalone and differential GNSS measurements and inertial measurement units. The method's measurement error was assessed using a Monte Carlo simulation, sampling from the most relevant sources of error. P prop decreased approximately linearly with skiing speed and acceleration, and was approximated by the equationP prop ( v , v ˙ ) = -0.54·v -0.71 · v ˙ + 7.26 W·kg-1. P prop was typically zero for skiing speeds >9 m·s-1, because the athletes transitioned to the tuck position. Peak P prop was 8.35 ± 0.63 W·kg-1 and was typically attained during the final lap in the last major ascent, while average P prop throughout the race was 3.35 ± 0.23 W·kg-1. The measurement error of P prop increased with skiing speed, from 0.09 W·kg-1 at 2.0 m·s-1 to 0.58 W·kg-1 at 9.0 m·s-1. In summary, this study is the first to provide continuous measurements of P prop for distance skiing, as well as the first to quantify the measurement error during roller skiing using the power balance principle. Therefore, these results provide novel insight into the pacing strategies employed by high-level skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Gløersen
- Condensed Matter Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anders Malthe-Sørenssen
- Condensed Matter Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Physics, Center for Computing in Science Education, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Dag Kristian Dysthe
- Condensed Matter Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sports Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Sport Science, Alpine Skiing, Norwegian Ski Federation, Oslo, Norway
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Sagelv EH, Engseth TP, Pedersen S, Pettersen SA, Mathisen G, Heitmann KA, Welde B, Thomassen TO, Stöggl TL. Physiological Comparisons of Elite Male Visma Ski Classics and National Level Cross-Country Skiers During Uphill Treadmill Roller Skiing. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1523. [PMID: 30505276 PMCID: PMC6250767 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2018] [Accepted: 10/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Longer distance cross-country ski (14–220 km) races such as the Visma Ski Classics (VSC) has recently gained attention in addition to the traditional Olympic distances (5–50 km) associated with cross-country (XC) skiing. These long-distance races are characterized by extensive use of the upper body while double poling (DP). While there is a substantial amount of research on Olympic distance XC skiing, the physiological capacities of VSC skiers has not yet been explored. We recruited seven elite male VSC skiers and seven well-trained national level male XC skiers to undergo three tests in the laboratory: (1) a one repetition maximum (1RM) strength test in a cable pulldown; (2) roller skiing tests on a treadmill (10.5% inclination) for determination of gross efficiency (GE) at submaximal speeds (8 and 10 km·h−1) in DP and diagonal stride (DS); (3) two ramp protocols to exhaustion (15% inclination, starting speed 7 km·h−1) in DP and DS for the assessment of peak and maximal oxygen uptake (V.O2peak and V.O2max), respectively. Compared with the national level XC skiers, the VSC skiers performed similar in the 1RM cable pulldown, displayed 12.2% higher GE in DP at 8 km·h−1 but did not display any difference at 10 km·h−1, and had lower blood lactate concentration and heart rate at both submaximal speeds. The VSC skiers had longer time to exhaustion compared with the national level XC skiers during the two ramp protocols in DS (18%) and in DP (29%). The V.O2max was 10% higher in DS compared with DP, with no differences between the groups. The V.O2peak/V.O2max-ratio of 90% did not differ between the two groups. In conclusion, the main differences were lower cardiorespiratory and metabolic responses at submaximal speeds as well as longer time to exhaustion in VSC skiers compared with national level XC skiers. This suggest efficiency to be the main difference between VSC and national level XC skiers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edvard H Sagelv
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tina P Engseth
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Sigurd Pedersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Svein A Pettersen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Gunnar Mathisen
- Department of Teaching and Pedagogy, Faculty of Humanities, Social Sciences and Teaching, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Kim A Heitmann
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Boye Welde
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Tor O Thomassen
- School of Sport Sciences, Faculty of Health Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø, Norway
| | - Thomas L Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
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Solli GS, Kocbach J, Seeberg TM, Tjønnås J, Rindal OMH, Haugnes P, Torvik PØ, Sandbakk Ø. Sex-based differences in speed, sub-technique selection, and kinematic patterns during low- and high-intensity training for classical cross-country skiing. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0207195. [PMID: 30440017 PMCID: PMC6237352 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0207195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2018] [Accepted: 10/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES We investigated sex-based differences in speed, sub-technique selection, and kinematic patterns during low- (LIT) and high-intensity training (HIT) for classical cross-country (XC) skiing across varying terrain. METHODS Six male and six female elite XC skiers with an approximately 15% differences in VO2max (men: 68.9±2.9 mL·min-1·kg-1, women: 60.1±3.3 mL·min-1·kg-1) were monitored using a multi-sensor system to collect time-synchronised data of heart rate, speed, and multiple tri-axial inertial measurements units while XC skiing on a 5-km competition track. RESULTS Men skied 21% faster than women during HIT (5.9±0.3 m·s-1 vs. 4.9±0.2 m·s-1, P < .001), with the greatest difference (26%) while skiing on flat terrain, whereas skiing speed did not significantly differ between men and women during LIT. At similar instructed intensity and rating of perceived effort, women exhibited significantly higher relative heart rate (85±2% vs. 71±3% of maximum) and blood lactate levels (4.0±1.3 vs. 1.2±0.2 mmol/L) during LIT (all P < .001) than men, whereas physiological responses did generally not differ between the sexes during HIT. During both intensities and among both sexes, double poling (DP) was the sub-technique most used relative to distance, followed by miscellaneous sub-techniques (MISC), diagonal stride (DIA), kick double poling (DK) and herringbone (HRB). In relation to distance women used DIA more than men during LIT (22% vs. 17%, P = .009) and HIT (23% vs. 12%, P = .001), whereas men used MISC, including tucking and turning, more than women during LIT (39% vs. 25%, P = .017) and HIT (41% vs. 30%, P = .064). In particular, men used DP more than women while skiing the uphill sections during both LIT (24% vs. 11%, P = .015) and HIT (39% vs. 13%, P = .002). CONCLUSIONS Our findings provide novel insights into sex-based differences in speed, sub-technique selection, and kinematic patterns during LIT and HIT for classical skiing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guro Strøm Solli
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jan Kocbach
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Christian Michelsen Research, Bergen, Norway
| | | | | | - Ole Marius Hoel Rindal
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Pål Haugnes
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Per Øyvind Torvik
- Department of Sports Science and Physical Education, Nord University, Bodø, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- * E-mail:
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Hausken K. Evolutions in the physiology of skiing, skating and running in the Olympics. J Sports Med Phys Fitness 2018; 59:1175-1194. [PMID: 30317836 DOI: 10.23736/s0022-4707.18.08977-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Cross-country skiing, biathlon, Nordic combined, short track speed skating, and speed skating (12+11+3+8+14=48 events), i.e. five of the 15 disciplines in the 2018 Winter Olympics, require participants to reach the finish line in minimum time, while exerting mechanical propulsion power through flat terrain, uphill, and downhill. This article compares distances and times for these disciplines systematically with each other and with running, walking, and swimming in the Summer Olympics. Regarding physiological implications, the absence of distances below 6 km in biathlon, 5 km in Nordic combined, 1.2-1.5 km in cross-country skiing, and 0.5 km in speed skating means recruiting fewer competitors with sprint characteristics (type IIx fast isoforms muscles, etc.). The absence of distances above 10 km in speed skating and Nordic combined, and 20 km in biathlon, means recruiting fewer or other kinds of competitors with long distance characteristics. For example, high anaerobic threshold is important at greater distances, and high VO2max is important above intermediate distances. A new recruitment criterion for Olympic events is proposed, argued to recruit athletes fairly and be fair to spectators. The new criterion supplements current criteria such as popularity, relevance, and cooperation. The article recommends assessing 26 new events for future Winter Olympics within the five disciplines, equivalently for men and women. Formats are specified for the new events. Regarding equal distances for men and women, women use 8.7-13.6% more time than men in most events, except when upper-body power is important (above 13.6%) and in ultraendurance events (below 5.3%).
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Affiliation(s)
- Kjell Hausken
- Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway -
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Laaksonen MS, Finkenzeller T, Holmberg HC, Sattlecker G. The influence of physiobiomechanical parameters, technical aspects of shooting, and psychophysiological factors on biathlon performance: A review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:394-404. [PMID: 30450247 PMCID: PMC6234024 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 05/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The biathlon, an Olympic sporting discipline that combines cross-country skiing with rifle marksmanship, entails considerable physiological demands, as well as fine motor control while shooting after intense exercise and under mental pressure. Although much of our knowledge about cross-country skiing is probably also applicable to the biathlon, carrying the rifle and shooting under stress make this discipline somewhat unique. The present review summarizes and examines the scientific literature related to biathlon performance, with a focus on physiological and biomechanical factors and shooting technique, as well as psychophysiological aspects of shooting performance. We conclude with suggestions for future research designed to extend our knowledge about the biathlon, which is presently quite limited.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko S. Laaksonen
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83125, Sweden
| | - Thomas Finkenzeller
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg 5020, Austria
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83125, Sweden
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT The Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø 9019, Norway
| | - Gerold Sattlecker
- Department of Sport Science and Kinesiology, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, Salzburg 5020, Austria
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Stöggl T, Pellegrini B, Holmberg HC. Pacing and predictors of performance during cross-country skiing races: A systematic review. JOURNAL OF SPORT AND HEALTH SCIENCE 2018; 7:381-393. [PMID: 30450246 PMCID: PMC6234023 DOI: 10.1016/j.jshs.2018.09.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2018] [Revised: 05/20/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cross-country skiing (XCS) racing, a popular international winter sport, is complex and challenging from physical, technical, and tactical perspectives. Despite the vast amount of research focusing on this sport, no review has yet addressed the pacing strategies of elite XCS racers or the factors that influence their performance. The aim was to review the scientific literature in an attempt to determine the effects of pacing strategy on the performance of elite XCS racers. METHODS Four electronic databases were searched using relevant subject headings and keywords. Only original research articles published in peer-reviewed journals and the English language and addressing performance, biomechanics, physiology, and anthropometry of XCS racers were reviewed. RESULTS All 27 included articles applied correlative designs to study the effectiveness of different pacing strategies. None of the articles involved the use of an experimental design. Furthermore, potential changes in external conditions (e.g., weather, ski properties) were not taken into consideration. A comparable number of studies focused on the skating or classical technique. In most cases, positive pacing was observed, with certain indications that higher-level athletes and those with more endurance and strength utilized a more even pacing strategy. The ability to achieve and maintain a long cycle length on all types of terrain was an important determinant of performance in all of the included studies, which was not the case for cycle rate. In general, uphill performance was closely related to overall race performance, with uphill performance being most closely correlated to the success of female skiers and performance on flat terrain being more important for male skiers. Moreover, pacing was coupled to the selection and distribution of technique during a race, with faster skiers employing more double poling and kick double poling, less diagonal stride, and more V2 (double dance) than V1 (single dance) skating across a race. CONCLUSION We propose that skiers at all levels can improve their performance with more specific training in techniques (i.e., maintaining long cycles without compromising cycle rate and selecting appropriate techniques) in combination with training for endurance and more strength. Furthermore, we would advise less experienced skiers and/or those with lower levels of performance to apply a more even pacing strategy rather than a positive one (i.e., starting the race too fast).
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Stöggl
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, University of Salzburg, Hallein/Rif 5400, Austria
| | - Barbara Pellegrini
- CeRiSM Research Centre “Sport, Mountain, and Health,” Rovereto 36068, Italy
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine and Movement, University of Verona, Verona 37100, Italy
| | - Hans-Christer Holmberg
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund 83128, Sweden
- School of Sport Sciences, UiT Arctic University of Norway, Tromsø 9037, Norway
- School of Kinesiology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC V6T 121,Canada
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm 17177, Sweden
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Karlsson Ø, Gilgien M, Gløersen ØN, Rud B, Losnegard T. Exercise Intensity During Cross-Country Skiing Described by Oxygen Demands in Flat and Uphill Terrain. Front Physiol 2018; 9:846. [PMID: 30038577 PMCID: PMC6046382 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00846] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose: In this study wearable global navigation satellite system units were used on athletes to investigate pacing patterns by describing exercise intensities in flat and uphill terrain during a simulated cross-country ski race. Methods: Eight well-trained male skiers (age: 23.0 ± 4.8 years, height: 183.8 ± 6.8 cm, weight: 77.1 ± 6.1 kg, VO2peak: 73 ± 5 mL⋅kg-1⋅min-1) completed a 13.5-km individual time trial outdoors and a standardized indoor treadmill protocol on roller skis. Positional data were recorded during the time trial using a differential global navigation satellite system to calculate external workloads in flat and uphill terrain. From treadmill tests, the individual relationships between oxygen consumption and external workload in flat (1°) and uphill (8°) terrain were determined, in addition to VO2peak and the maximal accumulated O2-deficit. To estimate the exercise intensity in the time trial, the O2-demand in two different flat and five different uphill sections was calculated by extrapolation of individual O2-consumption/workload ratios. Results: There was a significant interaction between section and average O2-demands, with higher O2-demands in the uphill sections (110–160% of VO2peak) than in the flat sections (≤100% of VO2peak) (p < 0.01). The maximal accumulated O2-deficit associated with uphill treadmill roller skiing was significantly higher compared to flat (6.2 ± 0.5 vs. 4.6 ± 0.5 L, p < 0.01), while no significant difference was found in VO2peak. Conclusion: Cross-country (XC) skiers repeatedly applied exercise intensities exceeding their maximal aerobic power. ΣO2-deficits were higher during uphill skiing compared to flat which has implications for the duration and magnitude of supramaximal work rates that can be applied in different types of terrain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Øyvind Karlsson
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Matthias Gilgien
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway.,Norwegian Ski Federation, Alpine Skiing, Oslo, Norway
| | - Øyvind N Gløersen
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway.,Condensed Matter Physics, Department of Physics, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Bjarne Rud
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - Thomas Losnegard
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
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Abstract
BACKGROUND Sprint events in cross-country skiing are unique not only with respect to their length (0.8-1.8 km), but also in involving four high-intensity heats of ~3 min in duration, separated by a relatively short recovery period (15-60 min). OBJECTIVE Our aim was to systematically review the scientific literature to identify factors related to the performance of elite sprint cross-country skiers. METHODS Four electronic databases were searched using relevant medical subject headings and keywords, as were reference lists, relevant journals, and key authors in the field. Only original research articles addressing physiology, biomechanics, anthropometry, or neuromuscular characteristics and elite sprint cross-country skiers and performance outcomes were included. All articles meeting inclusion criteria were quality assessed. Data were extracted from each article using a standardized form and subsequently summarized. RESULTS Thirty-one articles met the criteria for inclusion, were reviewed, and scored an average of 66 ± 7 % (range 56-78 %) upon quality assessment. All articles except for two were quasi-experimental, and only one had a fully-experimental research design. In total, articles comprised 567 subjects (74 % male), with only nine articles explicitly reporting their skiers' sprint International Skiing Federation points (weighted mean 116 ± 78). A similar number of articles addressed skating and classical techniques, with more than half of the investigations involving roller-skiing assessments under laboratory conditions. A range of physiological, biomechanical, anthropometric, and neuromuscular characteristics was reported to relate to sprint skiing performance. Both aerobic and anaerobic capacities are important qualities, with the anaerobic system suggested to contribute more to the performance during the first of repeated heats; and the aerobic system during subsequent heats. A capacity for high speed in all the following instances is important for the performance of sprint cross-country skiers: at the start of the race, at any given point when required (e.g., when being challenged by a competitor), and in the final section of each heat. Although high skiing speed is suggested to rely primarily on high cycle rates, longer cycle lengths are commonly observed in faster skiers. In addition, faster skiers rely on different technical strategies when approaching peak speeds, employ more effective techniques, and use better coordinated movements to optimize generation of propulsive force from the resultant ski and pole forces. Strong uphill technique is critical to race performance since uphill segments are the most influential on race outcomes. A certain strength level is required, although more does not necessarily translate to superior sprint skiing performance, and sufficient strength-endurance capacities are also of importance to minimize the impact and accumulation of fatigue during repeated heats. Lastly, higher lean mass does appear to benefit sprint skiers' performance, with no clear advantage conferred via body height and mass. LIMITATIONS Generalization of findings from one study to the next is challenging considering the array of experimental tasks, variables defining performance, fundamental differences between skiing techniques, and evolution of sprint skiing competitions. Although laboratory-based measures can effectively assess on-snow skiing performance, conclusions drawn from roller-skiing investigations might not fully apply to on-snow skiing performance. A low number of subjects were females (only 17 %), warranting further studies to better understand this population. Lastly, more training studies involving high-level elite sprint skiers and investigations pertaining to the ability of skiers to maintain high-sprint speeds at the end of races are recommended to assist in understanding and improving high-level sprint skiing performance, and resilience to fatigue. CONCLUSIONS Successful sprint cross-country skiing involves well-developed aerobic and anaerobic capacities, high speed abilities, effective biomechanical techniques, and the ability to develop high forces rapidly. A certain level of strength is required, particularly ski-specific strength, as well as the ability to withstand fatigue across the repeated heats of sprint races. Cross-country sprint skiing is demonstrably a demanding and complex sport, where high-performance skiers need to simultaneously address physiological, biomechanical, anthropometric, and neuromuscular aspects to ensure success.
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50
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Bolger CM, Bessone V, Federolf P, Ettema G, Sandbakk Ø. The influence of increased distal loading on metabolic cost, efficiency, and kinematics of roller ski skating. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0197592. [PMID: 29791464 PMCID: PMC5965841 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0197592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 05/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to examine the influence of increased loading of the roller ski on metabolic cost, gross efficiency, and kinematics of roller ski skating in steep and moderate terrain, while employing two incline-specific techniques. Ten nationally ranked male cross-country skiers were subjected to four 7-minute submaximal intervals, with 0, 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 kg added beneath the roller-ski in a randomized order. This was done on two separate days, with the G2 skating at 12% incline and 7 km/h speed and G3 skating at 5% incline and 14 km/h speed, respectively. At 12% incline, there was a significant increase in metabolic rate and a decrease in gross efficiency with added weight (P<0.001 and P = 0.002). At 5% incline, no change in metabolic rate or gross efficiency was found (P = 0.89 and P = 0.11). Rating of perceived exertion (RPE) increased gradually with added weight at both inclines (P>0.05). No changes in cycle characteristics were observed between the different ski loadings at either incline, although the lateral and vertical displacements of the foot/skis were slightly altered at 12% incline with added weight. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that increased loading of the ski increases the metabolic cost and reduces gross efficiency during steep uphill roller skiing in G2 skating, whereas no significant effect was revealed when skating on relatively flat terrain in G3. Cycle characteristics remained unchanged across conditions at both inclines, whereas small adjustments in the displacement of the foot coincided with the efficiency changes in uphill terrain. The increased RPE values with added ski-weight at both inclines indicates that other factors than those measured here could have influenced effort and/or fatigue when lifting a heavier ski.
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Affiliation(s)
- Conor M. Bolger
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Veronica Bessone
- Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Politecnico di Torino, Torino, Italy
- Department of Biomechanics in Sports, Technical University of Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Peter Federolf
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Sport Science, University of Innsbruck, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Gertjan Ettema
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Øyvind Sandbakk
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Trondheim, Norway
- * E-mail:
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