1
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Loria F, Grabherr S, Kuuranne T, Leuenberger N. Use of RNA biomarkers in the antidoping field. Bioanalysis 2024; 16:475-484. [PMID: 38497758 PMCID: PMC11216508 DOI: 10.4155/bio-2023-0251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/19/2024] Open
Abstract
There is growing evidence that various RNA molecules can serve as biomarkers for clinical diagnoses. Over the last decade, the high specificities and sensitivities of RNA biomarkers have led to proposals that they could be used to detect prohibited substances and practices in sports. mRNAs and circulating miRNAs have the potential to improve the detection of doping and expand the performance of the Athlete Biological Passport. This review provides a summary of the use of RNA biomarkers to detect human and equine doping practices, including a discussion of the use of dried blood spots as a stable matrix that supports and improves the general process of RNA biomarker detection. The advantages of RNA biomarkers over protein biomarkers are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Loria
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne & Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital & University of Lausanne, 1000, Switzerland
| | - Silke Grabherr
- University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne & Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital & University of Lausanne, 1000, Switzerland
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne & Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital & University of Lausanne, 1000, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Leuenberger
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne & Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital & University of Lausanne, 1000, Switzerland
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2
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Breenfeldt Andersen A, Nordsborg NB, Bonne TC, Bejder J. Contemporary blood doping-Performance, mechanism, and detection. Scand J Med Sci Sports 2024; 34:e14243. [PMID: 36229224 DOI: 10.1111/sms.14243] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/09/2022] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Blood doping is prohibited for athletes but has been a well-described practice within endurance sports throughout the years. With improved direct and indirect detection methods, the practice has allegedly moved towards micro-dosing, that is, reducing the blood doping regime amplitude. This narrative review evaluates whether blood doping, specifically recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEpo) treatment and blood transfusions are performance-enhancing, the responsible mechanism as well as detection possibilities with a special emphasis on micro-dosing. In general, studies evaluating micro-doses of blood doping are limited. However, in randomized, double-blinded, placebo-controlled trials, three studies find that infusing as little as 130 ml red blood cells or injecting 9 IU × kg bw-1 rhEpo three times per week for 4 weeks improve endurance performance ~4%-6%. The responsible mechanism for a performance-enhancing effect following rhEpo or blood transfusions appear to be increased O2 -carrying capacity, which is accompanied by an increased muscular O2 extraction and likely increased blood flow to the working muscles, enabling the ability to sustain a higher exercise intensity for a given period. Blood doping in micro-doses challenges indirect detection by the Athlete Biological Passport, albeit it can identify ~20%-60% of the individuals depending on the sample timing. However, novel biomarkers are emerging, and some may provide additive value for detection of micro blood doping such as the immature reticulocytes or the iron regulatory hormones hepcidin and erythroferrone. Future studies should attempt to validate these biomarkers for implementation in real-world anti-doping efforts and continue the biomarker discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Breenfeldt Andersen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Public Health, Section for Sport Science, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | | | - Thomas Christian Bonne
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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3
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Lima G, Shurlock J, Wang G, Karanikolou A, Sutehall S, Pitsiladis YP, D'Alessandro A. Metabolomic Profiling of Recombinant Erythropoietin (rHuEpo) in Trained Caucasian Athletes. Clin J Sport Med 2023; 33:e123-e134. [PMID: 36731031 DOI: 10.1097/jsm.0000000000001074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency but remains the drug of choice for many cheating athletes wishing to evade detection using current methods. The aim of this study was to identify a robust metabolomics signature of rHuEpo using an untargeted approach in blood (plasma and serum) and urine. DESIGN Longitudinal study. SETTING University of Glasgow. PARTICIPANTS Eighteen male participants regularly engaged in predominantly endurance-based activities, such as running, cycling, swimming, triathlon, and team sports, were recruited. INTERVENTIONS Each participant received 50 IU·kg -1 body mass of rHuEpo subcutaneously every 2 days for 4 weeks. Samples were collected at baseline, during rHuEpo administration (over 4 weeks) and after rHuEpo administration (week 7-10). The samples were analyzed using hydrophilic interaction liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Significant metabolic signatures of rHuEpo administration were identified in all biofluids tested in this study. RESULTS Regarding metabolomics data, 488 plasma metabolites, 694 serum metabolites, and 1628 urinary metabolites were identified. Reproducible signatures of rHuEpo administration across all biofluids included alterations of pyrimidine metabolism (orotate and dihydroorotate) and acyl-carnitines (palmitoyl-carnitine and elaidic carnitine), metabolic pathways that are associated with erythropoiesis or erythrocyte membrane function, respectively. CONCLUSIONS Preliminary metabolic signatures of rHuEpo administration were identified. Future studies will be required to validate these encouraging results in independent cohorts and with orthogonal techniques, such as integration of our data with signatures derived from other "omics" analyses of rHuEpo administration (eg, transcriptomics).
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Affiliation(s)
- Giscard Lima
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
- University of Rome "Foro Italico," Rome, Italy
| | - Jonathan Shurlock
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Guan Wang
- Sport and Exercise Science and Sports Medicine Research and Enterprise Group, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Antonia Karanikolou
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Shaun Sutehall
- Division of Physiological Sciences, Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Yannis P Pitsiladis
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
- Centre for Exercise Sciences and Sports Medicine, FIMS Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, Rome, Italy
- European Federation of Sports Medicine Associations (EFSMA), Lausanne, Switzerland
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), Lausanne, Switzerland; and
| | - Angelo D'Alessandro
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, University of Colorado Denver-Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado
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4
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Sutehall S, Malinsky F, Shurlock J, Wang G, Bosch A, Pitsiladis YP. Whole-Blood and Peripheral Mononuclear Cell Transcriptional Response to Prolonged Altitude Exposure in Well-Trained Runners. Clin J Sport Med 2023; 33:e135-e144. [PMID: 37656978 DOI: 10.1097/jsm.0000000000001046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 09/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) abuse by athletes threatens the integrity of sport. Due to the overlap in physiological response to rHuEpo and altitude exposure, it remains difficult to differentiate changes in hematological variables caused by rHuEpo or altitude, and therefore, other molecular methods to enhance anti-doping should be explored. OBJECTIVE To identify the hematological and transcriptomic response to prolonged altitude exposure typical of practices used by elite athletes. DESIGN Longitudinal study. SETTING University of Cape Town and Altitude Training Centre in Ethiopia. PARTICIPANTS AND INTERVENTION Fourteen well-trained athletes sojourned to an altitude training camp in Sululta, Ethiopia (∼2400-2500 m above sea level) for 27 days. Blood samples were taken before arrival, 24 hours, and 9, 16, and 24 days after arrival at altitude in addition to 24 hours and 6, 13, and 27 days upon return to sea level. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Blood samples were analyzed for hemoglobin concentration, hematocrit, and reticulocyte percentage. The transcriptomic response in whole blood and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were analyzed using gene expression microarrays. RESULTS A unique set of 29 and 10 genes were identified to be commonly expressed at every altitude time point in whole blood and PBMC, respectively. There were no genes identified upon return to sea level in whole blood, and only one gene within PBMC. CONCLUSIONS The current study has identified a series of unique genes that can now be integrated with genes previously validated for rHuEpo abuse, thereby enabling the differentiation of rHuEpo from altitude exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun Sutehall
- Division of Physiological Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Fernanda Malinsky
- Centre for Stress and Age-Related Disease, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | | | - Guan Wang
- School of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew Bosch
- Centre for Exercise Sciences and Sports Medicine, FIMS Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, Rome, Italy
| | - Yannis P Pitsiladis
- Centre for Stress and Age-Related Disease, University of Brighton, Brighton, United Kingdom
- Centre for Exercise Sciences and Sports Medicine, FIMS Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, Rome, Italy
- European Federation of Sports Medicine Associations (EFSMA), Lausanne, Switzerland; and
- International Federation of Sports Medicine (FIMS), Lausanne, Switzerland
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5
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Breenfeldt Andersen A, Bejder J, Bonne TC, Graae J, Seier S, Nordsborg NB. Changes in Immature Reticulocytes Aid the Indirect Detection of Microdose Recombinant Erythropoietin Use in Men and Women. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:1695-1705. [PMID: 37095637 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/26/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE We investigated whether immature reticulocyte fraction (IRF) and the immature reticulocytes to red blood cells ratio (IR/RBC) are sensitive and specific biomarkers for microdose recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) and whether the inclusion of reticulocyte percentage (RET%) and the algorithm "abnormal blood profile score (ABPS)" increased the athlete biological passport (ABP) sensitivity compared with hemoglobin concentration ([Hb]) and the OFF-hr score ([Hb]-60 × √RET%). METHODS Forty-eight (♀ = 24, ♂ = 24) participants completed a 2-wk baseline period followed by a 4-wk intervention period with three weekly intravenous injections of 9 IU·kg -1 ·bw -1 epoetin β (♀ = 12, ♂ = 12) or saline (0.9% NaCl, ♀ = 12, ♂ = 12) and a 10-d follow-up. Blood samples were collected weekly during baseline and intervention as well as 3, 5, and 10 d after treatment. RESULTS The rHuEPO treatment increased [Hb] (time-treatment, P < 0.001), RET% (time-treatment, P < 0.001), IRF (time-treatment, P < 0.001) and IR/RBC (time-treatment, P < 0.001). IRF and IR/RBC were up to ~58% ( P < 0.001) and ~141% ( P < 0.001) higher compared with placebo, and calculated thresholds provided a peak sensitivity across timepoints of 58% and 54% with ~98% specificity, respectively. To achieve >99% specificity for IRF and IR/RBC, sensitivity was reduced to 46% and 50%, respectively. Across all timepoints, the addition of RET% and ABPS to the ABP increased sensitivity from 29% to 46%. Identification of true-positive outliers obtained via the ABP and IRF and IR/RBC increased sensitivity across all timepoints to 79%. CONCLUSIONS In summary, IRF, IR/RBC, RET% and ABPS are sensitive and specific biomarkers for microdose rHuEPO in both men and women and complement the ABP.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | | | - Jonathan Graae
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, DENMARK
| | - Søren Seier
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, DENMARK
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Tyree DJ, Brothers MC, Sim D, Flory L, Tomb M, Strayer K, Jung A, Lee J, Land C, Guess B, Chancellor C, Zelasko J, Alvarado RL, Pitsch RL, Harshman SW, Regn D, Medvedev IR, Kim SS. Detection of Asthma Inhaler Use via Terahertz Spectroscopy. ACS Sens 2023; 8:610-618. [PMID: 36657059 DOI: 10.1021/acssensors.2c01795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Inhaled medications are commonplace for administering bronchodilators, anticholinergics, and corticosteroids. While they have a defined legitimate use, they are also used in sporting events as performance-enhancing drugs. These performance enhancers can be acquired via both legal (i.e., at a pharmacy through over-the-counter medications or through a prescription) and illicit (i.e., black market and foreign pharmacies) means, thus making monitoring procurement impossible. While urine tests can detect these pharmacological agents hours after they have been inhaled, there is a significant lag time before they are observed in urine. Direct detection of these inhaled agents is complicated and requires a multiplexed approach due to the sheer number of inhaled pharmacological agents. Therefore, detection of propellants, which carry the drug into the lungs, provides a simpler path forward toward detection of broad pharmacological agents. In this paper, we demonstrate the first use of terahertz spectroscopy (THz) to detect inhaled medications in human subjects. Notably, we were able to detect and quantitate the propellant, HFA-134a, in breath up to 30 min after using an asthma inhaler, enabling the use of a point-of-care device to monitor exhaled breath for the presence of propellants. We also demonstrate via simulations that the same approach can be leveraged to detect and identify next-generation propellants, specifically HFA-152a. As a result, we provide evidence that a single point-of-care THz sensor can detect when individuals have used pressure-mediated dose inhalers (pMDIs) without further modification of the hardware.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel J Tyree
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States.,Department of Physics, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio 45435, United States
| | - Michael C Brothers
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States.,UES Inc. Dayton, Ohio 45432, United States
| | - Daniel Sim
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States.,UES Inc. Dayton, Ohio 45432, United States
| | - Laura Flory
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States.,UES Inc. Dayton, Ohio 45432, United States
| | - Miranda Tomb
- United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Kraig Strayer
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States.,UES Inc. Dayton, Ohio 45432, United States
| | - Anne Jung
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States.,UES Inc. Dayton, Ohio 45432, United States
| | - Jaehwan Lee
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Christopher Land
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Barlow Guess
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Cody Chancellor
- United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Jeremy Zelasko
- United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Rosa Linda Alvarado
- United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Rhonda L Pitsch
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Sean W Harshman
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Dara Regn
- United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
| | - Ivan R Medvedev
- Department of Physics, Wright State University, Dayton, Ohio 45435, United States
| | - Steve S Kim
- 711th Human Performance Wing, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Dayton, Ohio 45433, United States
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7
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Reichel C, Erceg D, Lorenc B, Scheiblhofer V, Farmer L, Zanitzer K, Geisendorfer T, Gmeiner G, Thevis M. Data from a microdosed recombinant human erythropoietin administration study applying the new biotinylated clone AE7A5 antibody and a further optimized sarcosyl polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis protocol. Drug Test Anal 2023; 15:163-172. [PMID: 33450134 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2989] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2020] [Revised: 09/23/2020] [Accepted: 12/01/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
Abstract
Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone, which stimulates the production of red blood cells. Due to its performance-enhancing effect, it is prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA). In order to reduce the detection window of EPO doping, athletes have been applying low doses of recombinant EPO (e.g., <10 IU/kg body weight, daily or every second day) instead of larger doses twice or more per week (e.g., 30 IU/kg). Microdoses of Retacrit (epoetin zeta), an EPO biosimilar, were administered intravenously and subcutaneously to human males and females. Urine and serum samples were collected and analysed applying the new biotinylated clone AE7A5 EPO antibody and a further optimized sarcosyl polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SAR-PAGE) protocol. With the improved protocol, microdosed Retacrit (7.5 IU/kg body weight [BW]) was detectable for at least 52 h after intravenous administration. Detection windows were approximately the same for serum and urine and doubled after subcutaneous administration (~104 h). Previous studies applying different electrophoretic techniques and the not further optimized SAR-PAGE protocol revealed considerably shorter detection windows for recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) microdoses. Because the new biotinylated antibody performed significantly more sensitive than the nonbiotinylated version, the new protocol will improve the sensitivity and hence detectability of recombinant EPO in doping control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Reichel
- Doping Control Laboratory Seibersdorf, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Damir Erceg
- Clinical Trial Unit, 'Srebrnjak' Children's Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia.,Faculty of Dental Medicine and Health, University of Osijek 'Josip Juraj Strossmayer', Osijek, Croatia.,School of Medicine, University of Osijek 'Josip Juraj Strossmayer', Osijek, Croatia.,Personalized Medicine, 'St. Catherine' Hospital, Zagreb, Croatia.,Nursing Department, Catholic University of Croatia, Zagreb, Croatia
| | - Barbara Lorenc
- Doping Control Laboratory Seibersdorf, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria
| | | | - Letizia Farmer
- Doping Control Laboratory Seibersdorf, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Katharina Zanitzer
- Doping Control Laboratory Seibersdorf, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Thomas Geisendorfer
- Doping Control Laboratory Seibersdorf, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Günter Gmeiner
- Doping Control Laboratory Seibersdorf, Seibersdorf Labor GmbH, Seibersdorf, Austria
| | - Mario Thevis
- Institute of Biochemistry/Center for Preventive Doping Research, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany.,European Monitoring Center for Emerging Doping Agents, German Sport University Cologne, Cologne, Germany
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8
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Krumm B, Botrè F, Saugy JJ, Faiss R. Future opportunities for the Athlete Biological Passport. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:986875. [PMID: 36406774 PMCID: PMC9666424 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.986875] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
The Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) was introduced to complement the direct anti-doping approach by indirectly outlining the possible use of prohibited substances or methods in sports. The ABP proved its effectiveness, at least through a deterrent effect, even though the matrices used for longitudinal monitoring (urine and blood) are subject to many intrinsic (e.g., genetic) and extrinsic (e.g., environmental conditions) confounding factors. In that context, new and more specific biomarkers are currently under development to enhance both the sensitivity and the specificity of the ABP. Multiple strategies are presently being explored to improve this longitudinal monitoring, with the development of the current modules, the investigation of new strategies, or the screening of new types of doping. Nevertheless, due to the variability induced by indirect biomarkers, the consideration of confounding factors should continuously support this research. Beyond tremendous advances in analytical sensitivity, machine learning-based approaches seem inevitable to facilitate an expert interpretation of numerous biological profiles and promote anti-doping efforts. This perspective article highlights the current innovations of the Athlete Biological Passport that seem the most promising. Through different research axes, this short manuscript provides an opportunity to bring together approaches that are more widely exploited (e.g., omics strategies) and others in the early stages of investigation (e.g., artificial intelligence) seeking to develop the ABP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastien Krumm
- Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences, Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences, Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland,Laboratorio Antidoping, Federazione Medico Sportiva Italiana, Rome, Italy
| | - Jonas J. Saugy
- Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences, Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Faiss
- Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences, Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland,*Correspondence: Raphael Faiss
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9
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Saugy JJ, Schmoutz T, Botrè F. Altitude and Erythropoietin: Comparative Evaluation of Their Impact on Key Parameters of the Athlete Biological Passport: A Review. Front Sports Act Living 2022; 4:864532. [PMID: 35847455 PMCID: PMC9282833 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2022.864532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The hematological module of the Athlete's Biological Passport (ABP) identifies doping methods and/or substances used to increase the blood's capacity to transport or deliver oxygen to the tissues. Recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPOs) are doping substances known to boost the production of red blood cells and might have an effect on the blood biomarkers of the ABP. However, hypoxic exposure influences these biomarkers similarly to rhEPOs. This analogous impact complicates the ABP profiles' interpretation by antidoping experts. The present study aimed to collect and identify, through a literature search, the physiological effects on ABP blood biomarkers induced by these external factors. A total of 43 studies were selected for this review. A positive correlation (R2 = 0.605, r = 0.778, p < 0.001) was identified between the hypoxic dose and the increase in hemoglobin concentration (HGB) percentage. In addition, the change in the reticulocyte percentage (RET%) has been identified as one of the most sensitive parameters to rhEPO use. The mean effects of rhEPO on blood parameters were greater than those induced by hypoxic exposure (1.7 times higher for HGB and RET% and 4 times higher for hemoglobin mass). However, rhEPO micro-doses have shown effects that are hardly distinguishable from those identified after hypoxic exposure. The results of the literature search allowed to identify temporal and quantitative evolution of blood parameters in connection with different hypoxic exposure doses, as well as different rhEPOs doses. This might be considered to provide justified and well-documented interpretations of physiological changes in blood parameters of the Athlete Biological Passport.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonas J. Saugy
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne (ISSUL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Research and Expertise in anti-Doping Sciences (REDs), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
- *Correspondence: Jonas J. Saugy
| | - Tania Schmoutz
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne (ISSUL), Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne (ISSUL), Lausanne, Switzerland
- Research and Expertise in anti-Doping Sciences (REDs), University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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10
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Cox HD, Miller GD, Manandhar A, Husk JD, Crouch AK, Eichner D. Tracking immature reticulocyte proteins for improved detection of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) abuse. Am J Hematol 2021; 96:1621-1629. [PMID: 34626008 DOI: 10.1002/ajh.26368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2021] [Revised: 09/22/2021] [Accepted: 09/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Athletes abuse recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO) and erythropoiesis stimulating agents to increase hemoglobin mass and improve performance. To evade detection, athletes have developed sophisticated blood doping regimens, which often include rhEPO micro-dosing. Detection of these methods requires biomarkers with increased sensitivity and a sample matrix that is more amenable to frequent testing in the field. We have developed a method to measure two immature reticulocyte proteins, CD71 and ferrochelatase (FECH), and one total erythrocyte protein, Band 3, in dried blood spots (DBS). This method was tested in response to rhEPO administration after low doses, 40 IU/kg, micro-doses, 900 IU, or saline injection in 20 healthy subjects. During administration of low-dose rhEPO, the mean CD71/Band 3 and FECH/Band 3 ratio increased by 412 ± 197% and 250 ± 44%, respectively. The mean response for the current biomarker, RET%, increased by 195 ± 35%. During administration of rhEPO micro-doses, CD71/Band 3 increased to 127 ± 25% on day 35 and 139 ± 36% on day 39, while no increase was observed in RET%. After rhEPO administration, during the washout phase, mean values decreased to a minimum of 64 ± 4% and 64 ± 11% for CD71/Band 3 and RET%, respectively. However, CD71/Band 3 remained below 75% of baseline for at least 4 weeks after rhEPO injection, while RET% returned to baseline levels. The results demonstrate that immature reticulocyte proteins have a larger response to rhEPO administration than the current biomarker, RET%, and can be monitored in the DBS matrix.
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Affiliation(s)
- Holly D. Cox
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory South Jordan Utah USA
| | | | | | - Jacob D. Husk
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory South Jordan Utah USA
| | - Andre K. Crouch
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory South Jordan Utah USA
| | - Daniel Eichner
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory South Jordan Utah USA
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11
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Dahlgren AR, Knych HK, Arthur RM, Durbin-Johnson BP, Finno CJ. Transcriptomic Markers of Recombinant Human Erythropoietin Micro-Dosing in Thoroughbred Horses. Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:1874. [PMID: 34946824 PMCID: PMC8702184 DOI: 10.3390/genes12121874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/22/2021] [Accepted: 11/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) is a well-known performance enhancing drug in human athletes, and there is anecdotal evidence of it being used in horse racing for the same purpose. rHuEPO, like endogenous EPO, increases arterial oxygen content and thus aerobic power. Micro-doping, or injecting smaller doses over a longer period of time, has become an important concern in both human and equine athletics since it is more difficult to detect. Horses offer an additional challenge of a contractile spleen, thus large changes in the red blood cell mass occur naturally. To address the challenge of detecting rHuEPO doping in horse racing, we determined the transcriptomic effects of rHuEPO micro-dosing over seven weeks in exercised Thoroughbreds. RNA-sequencing of peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated at several time points throughout the study identified three transcripts (C13H16orf54, PUM2 and CHTOP) that were significantly (PFDR < 0.05) different between the treatment groups across two or three time point comparisons. PUM2 and CHTOP play a role in erythropoiesis while not much is known about C13H16orf54, but it is primarily expressed in whole blood. However, gene expression differences were not large enough to detect via RT-qPCR, thereby precluding their utility as biomarkers of micro-doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna R. Dahlgren
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (A.R.D.); (R.M.A.)
| | - Heather K. Knych
- K.L. Maddy Equine Analytical Pharmacology Lab and Department of Molecular Biosciences, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA;
| | - Rick M. Arthur
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (A.R.D.); (R.M.A.)
| | | | - Carrie J. Finno
- School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California Davis, Davis, CA 95616, USA; (A.R.D.); (R.M.A.)
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12
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Krumm B, Faiss R. Factors Confounding the Athlete Biological Passport: A Systematic Narrative Review. SPORTS MEDICINE - OPEN 2021; 7:65. [PMID: 34524567 PMCID: PMC8443715 DOI: 10.1186/s40798-021-00356-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Through longitudinal, individual and adaptive monitoring of blood biomarkers, the haematological module of the athlete biological passport (ABP) has become a valuable tool in anti-doping efforts. The composition of blood as a vector of oxygen in the human body varies in athletes with the influence of multiple intrinsic (genetic) or extrinsic (training or environmental conditions) factors. In this context, it is fundamental to establish a comprehensive understanding of the various causes that may affect blood variables and thereby alter a fair interpretation of ABP profiles. METHODS This literature review described the potential factors confounding the ABP to outline influencing factors altering haematological profiles acutely or chronically. RESULTS Our investigation confirmed that natural variations in ABP variables appear relatively small, likely-at least in part-because of strong human homeostasis. Furthermore, the significant effects on haematological variations of environmental conditions (e.g. exposure to heat or hypoxia) remain debatable. The current ABP paradigm seems rather robust in view of the existing literature that aims to delineate adaptive individual limits. Nevertheless, its objective sensitivity may be further improved. CONCLUSIONS This narrative review contributes to disentangling the numerous confounding factors of the ABP to gather the available scientific evidence and help interpret individual athlete profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bastien Krumm
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Raphael Faiss
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
- Center of Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences - REDs, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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13
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Loria F, Cox HD, Voss SC, Rocca A, Miller GD, Townsend N, Georgakopoulos C, Eichner D, Kuuranne T, Leuenberger N. The use of RNA-based 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 biomarkers in dried blood spots to detect recombinant human erythropoietin microdoses. Drug Test Anal 2021; 14:826-832. [PMID: 34216436 PMCID: PMC9545850 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 06/25/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The hematological module of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) is used for indirect detection of blood manipulations; however, the use of this method to detect doping, such as with microdoses of recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEPO), is problematic. For this reason, the sensitivity of ABP must be enhanced by implementing novel biomarkers. Here, we show that 5'-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2) mRNAs are useful transcriptomic biomarkers to improve the indirect detection of rhEPO microdosing. Moreover, the sensitivity was sufficient to distinguish rhEPO administration from exposure to hypoxic conditions. Levels of mRNAs encoding carbonate anhydrase 1 (CA1) and solute carrier family 4 member 1 (SLC4A1) RNA, as well as the linear (L) and linear + circular (LC) forms of ALAS2 mRNA, were monitored for 16 days after rhEPO microdosing and during exposure to hypoxic conditions. ALAS2 mRNAs increased by 300% compared with the baseline values after rhEPO microdosing. Moreover, ALAS2 mRNAs were not significantly increased under hypoxic conditions. By contrast, CA1 mRNA was increased after both rhEPO microdosing and hypoxia, whereas SLC4A1 mRNA did not significantly increase under either condition. Furthermore, the analyses described here were performed using dried blood spots (DBSs), which provide advantages in terms of the sample collection, transport, and storage logistics. This study demonstrates that ALAS2 mRNA levels are sensitive and specific transcriptomic biomarkers for the detection of rhEPO microdosing using the hematological module of the ABP, and this method is compatible with the use of DBSs for anti-doping analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Loria
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Holly D Cox
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | | | - Angela Rocca
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Geoffrey D Miller
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Nathan Townsend
- Athlete Health and Performance Centre, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital Doha, Doha, Qatar
| | | | - Daniel Eichner
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Leuenberger
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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14
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Robach P, Gammella E, Recalcati S, Girelli D, Castagna A, Roustit M, Lundby C, Lundby AK, Bouzat P, Vergès S, Séchaud G, Banco P, Uhr M, Cornu C, Sallet P, Cairo G. Induction of erythroferrone in healthy humans by micro-dose recombinant erythropoietin or high-altitude exposure. Haematologica 2021; 106:384-390. [PMID: 31919080 PMCID: PMC7849588 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2019.233874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 01/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
The erythropoietin (Epo)-erythroferrone (ERFE)-hepcidin axis coordinates erythropoiesis and iron homeostasis. While mouse studies have established that Epo-induced ERFE production represses hepcidin synthesis by inhibiting hepatic BMP/SMAD signaling, evidence for the role of ERFE in humans is limited. To investigate the role of ERFE as a physiological erythroid regulator in humans, we conducted two studies. First, 24 males were given six injections of saline (placebo), recombinant Epo (rhEpo) at a dose of 20 IU/kg (micro-dose) or rhEpo at 50 IU/kg (low dose). Second, we quantified ERFE in 22 subjects exposed to high altitude (3800 m) for 15 h. In the first study, total hemoglobin mass (Hbmass) increased after low- but not after micro-dose injections, when compared to the mass after placebo injections. Serum ERFE levels were enhanced by rhEpo, remaining higher than after placebo for 48 h (micro-dose) or 72 h (low-dose) after injections. Conversely, hepcidin levels decreased when Epo and ERFE rose, before any changes in serum iron parameters occurred. In the second study, serum Epo and ERFE increased at high altitude. The present results demonstrate that in healthy humans ERFE responds to slightly increased Epo levels not associated with Hbmass expansion and downregulates hepcidin in an apparently iron-independent way. Notably, ERFE flags micro-dose Epo, thus holding promise as a novel biomarker of doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul Robach
- National School for Mountains Sports, Chamonix, France
| | - Elena Gammella
- Dept Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Italy
| | | | | | | | | | - Carsten Lundby
- Center for Physical Activity Research, University Hospital, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Pierre Bouzat
- Grenoble Alpes University Hospital, Grenoble, France
| | - Samuel Vergès
- HP2 Laboratory, U1042, Grenoble Alpes University, INSERM, Grenoble, France
| | | | | | - Mario Uhr
- Dept. Hematology Synlab-Suisse, Lugano, Switzerland
| | - Catherine Cornu
- Hospices Civils de Lyon INSERM CIC1407/UMR5558, Hôpital Louis Pradel, Bron, France
| | | | - Gaetano Cairo
- Dept Biomedical Sciences for Health, University of Milan, Italy
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15
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Bejder J, Breenfeldt Andersen A, Bonne TC, Linkis J, Olsen NV, Huertas JR, Nordsborg NB. Hematological adaptations and detection of recombinant human erythropoietin combined with chronic hypoxia. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:360-368. [PMID: 32955164 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
This study evaluated whether recombinant human erythropoietin (rhEpo) treatment combined with chronic hypoxia provided an additive erythropoietic response and whether the athlete biological passport (ABP) sensitivity improved with hypoxia. Two interventions were completed, each containing 4 weeks baseline, 4 weeks exposure at sea level or 2,320 m of altitude, and 4 weeks follow-up. Participants were randomly assigned to 20 IU·kg bw-1 rhEpo or placebo injections every second day for 3 weeks during the exposure period at sea level (rhEpo n = 25, placebo n = 9) or at altitude (rhEpo n = 12, placebo n = 27). Venous blood was analyzed weekly. Combining rhEpo and hypoxia induced larger changes compared with rhEpo or hypoxia alone for [Hb] (p < 0.001 and p > 0.05, respectively), reticulocyte percentage (p < 0.001), and OFF-hr score (p < 0.01 and p < 0.001, respectively). The most pronounced effect was observed for reticulocyte percentage with up to ~35% (p < 0.001) and ~45% (p < 0.001) higher levels compared with rhEpo or hypoxia only, respectively. The ABP sensitivity for the combined treatment was 54 and 35 percentage points higher for [Hb] (p < 0.05) and reticulocyte percentage (p < 0.05), respectively, but similar for OFF-hr score, compared with rhEpo at sea level. Across any time point, [Hb] and OFF-hr score combined identified 14 unique true-positive participants (56%) at sea level and 12 unique true-positive participants (100%) at altitude. However, a concurrent reduction in specificity existed at altitude. In conclusion, rhEpo treatment combined with hypoxic exposure provided an additive erythropoietic response compared with rhEpo or hypoxic exposure alone. Correspondingly, ABP was more sensitive to rhEpo at altitude than at sea level, but a compromised specificity existed with hypoxic exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | | | - Thomas Christian Bonne
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesper Linkis
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS), University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Niels Vidiendal Olsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Jesús Rodríguez Huertas
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Sport Sciences, Institute of Nutrition and Food Technology, Biomedical Research Centre, University of Granada, Granada, Spain
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16
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Martin L, Martin JA, Collot D, Hoang O, Audran M, Ericsson M, Marchand A. Improved detection methods significantly increase the detection window for EPO microdoses. Drug Test Anal 2020; 13:101-112. [PMID: 32737925 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
To reproduce a potential doping scenario, a 2 week administration of recombinant erythropoietin (rEPO) microdoses alone or in combination with growth hormone (GH) microdoses (three times a week) was performed on healthy and athletic male subjects. The aim of this study was to evaluate the identification capability of rEPO in samples obtained during and post treatment. Detection was tested in urine and blood using the antidoping techniques for rEPO detection (iso-electric focusing (IEF)-, sodium-dodecyl-sulfate (SDS)-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (PAGE) and for some urine samples the sarcosyl (SAR)-PAGE method) with some improvements: for blood samples, instead of a simple concentration step, immuno-extraction of EPO was performed for all urines to limit protein contamination that can affect migration. In addition, elution buffer modifications also improved the quality of migration. The use of a recently validated biotinylated anti-EPO antibody simplified the protocols, allowing a single transfer step instead of a double-blot even by IEF with a lowered background. The criteria for suspicious blood and urine samples by IEF were also re-evaluated. While endogenous EPO was not decreased over the course of the study, EPO microdoses were detectable in blood and urine between 24 h and 72 h after an administration. Detection in urine in combination with SDS-PAGE was the most sensitive combination for prolonged detection (100% identification after 48 h, 91% after 72 h), slightly better than IEF. Urine samples also tested by SAR-PAGE indicated a similar sensitivity of detection to SDS-PAGE. GH co-administration had no impact on rEPO elimination/detection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laurent Martin
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Jean-Antoine Martin
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - David Collot
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Olivier Hoang
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Michel Audran
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Magnus Ericsson
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - Alexandre Marchand
- Analysis Department - Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), Châtenay-Malabry, France
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17
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Bejder J, Robach P, Lundby A, Cornu C, Sallet P, Cairo G, Lundby C. Low doses of recombinant human erythropoietin does not affect C‐terminal FGF23 in healthy men. Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:975-979. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports (NEXS) University of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Paul Robach
- National School of Mountain Sports Chamonix France
| | - Anne‐Kristine Lundby
- Center for Physical Activity Research University Hospital of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Catherine Cornu
- Hospices Civils de Lyon INSERM CIC1407/UMR5558, Hôspital Louis Pradel Bron France
| | | | - Gaetano Cairo
- Department of Biomedical Sciences for Health University of Milan Italy
| | - Carsten Lundby
- Center for Physical Activity Research University Hospital of Copenhagen Copenhagen Denmark
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18
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Narduzzi L, Dervilly G, Audran M, Le Bizec B, Buisson C. A role for metabolomics in the antidoping toolbox? Drug Test Anal 2020; 12:677-690. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2788] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Luca Narduzzi
- Laboratoire d’Etude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA)Oniris, INRAE Nantes France
| | - Gaud Dervilly
- Laboratoire d’Etude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA)Oniris, INRAE Nantes France
| | - Michel Audran
- Département des analysesAgence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | - Bruno Le Bizec
- Laboratoire d’Etude des Résidus et Contaminants dans les Aliments (LABERCA)Oniris, INRAE Nantes France
| | - Corinne Buisson
- Département des analysesAgence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
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19
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Voss SC, Al‐Hamad K, Samsam W, Cherif A, Georgakopoulos C, Al Maadheed M, Balanos G, Lucas S, Sottas P, Wilson M, Townsend N. A novel mixed living high training low intervention and the hematological module of the athlete biological passport. Drug Test Anal 2019; 12:323-330. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2019] [Revised: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 10/22/2019] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - George Balanos
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences University of Birmingham Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | - Sam Lucas
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation Sciences University of Birmingham Birmingham Birmingham UK
| | | | - Mathew Wilson
- Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Research and Scientific Support Doha Ad Dawhah Qatar
| | - Nathan Townsend
- Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Research and Scientific Support Doha Ad Dawhah Qatar
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20
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Lundby C, Montero D. Did you know-why does maximal oxygen uptake increase in humans following endurance exercise training? Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2019; 227:e13371. [PMID: 31465612 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2019] [Revised: 08/20/2019] [Accepted: 08/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Carsten Lundby
- Innland University of Applied Sciences Lillehammer Norway
- Center for Physical Activity Research, Rigshospitalet Copenhagen Denmark
| | - David Montero
- Faculty of Kinesiology Libin Cardiovascular Institute of Alberta University of Calgary Calgary Canada
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21
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Salamin O, Gottardo E, Schobinger C, Reverter-Branchat G, Segura J, Saugy M, Kuuranne T, Tissot JD, Favrat B, Leuenberger N. Detection of Stimulated Erythropoiesis by the RNA-Based 5'-Aminolevulinate Synthase 2 Biomarker in Dried Blood Spot Samples. Clin Chem 2019; 65:1563-1571. [DOI: 10.1373/clinchem.2019.306829] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2019] [Accepted: 08/26/2019] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Abstract
BACKGROUND
Despite implementation of the Athlete Biological Passport 10 years ago, blood doping remains difficult to detect. Thus, there is a need for new biomarkers to increase the sensitivity of the adaptive model. Transcriptomic biomarkers originating from immature reticulocytes may be reliable indicators of blood manipulations. Furthermore, the use of dried blood spots (DBSs) for antidoping purposes constitutes a complementary approach to venous blood collection. Here, we developed a method of quantifying the RNA-based 5′-aminolevulinate synthase 2 (ALAS2) biomarker in DBS.
MATERIALS
The technical, interindividual, and intraindividual variabilities of the method, and the effects of storage conditions on the production levels of ALAS2 RNA were assessed. The method was used to monitor erythropoiesis stimulated endogenously (blood withdrawal) or exogenously (injection of recombinant human erythropoietin).
RESULTS
When measured over a 7-week period, the intra- and interindividual variabilities of ALAS2 expression in DBS were 12.5%–42.4% and 49%, respectively. Following withdrawal of 1 unit of blood, the ALAS2 RNA in DBS increased significantly for up to 15 days. Variations in the expression level of this biomarker in DBS samples were more marked than those of the conventional hematological parameters, reticulocyte percentage and immature reticulocyte fraction. After exogenous stimulation of erythropoiesis via recombinant human erythropoietin injection, ALAS2 expression in DBS increased by a mean 8-fold.
CONCLUSIONS
Monitoring of transcriptomic biomarkers in DBS could complement the measurement of hematological parameters in the Athlete Biological Passport and aid the detection of blood manipulations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Salamin
- Center of Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences – REDs, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Emeric Gottardo
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Céline Schobinger
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Gemma Reverter-Branchat
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM – Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Segura
- Integrative Pharmacology and Systems Neuroscience Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM – Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
- Catalonian Antidoping Laboratory, Doping Control Research Group, Neurosciences Research Program, IMIM – Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Martial Saugy
- Center of Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences – REDs, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Bernard Favrat
- Department of Ambulatory Care and Community Medicine, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Leuenberger
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Lausanne University Hospital and University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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22
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Marchand A, Martin J, Collot D, Hoang O, Roulland I, Semence F, Sottas P, Audran M, Varlet‐Marie E. Combined administration of microdoses of growth hormone and erythropoietin: Effects on performance and evaluation of GH detection capability using anti‐doping methods. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1698-1713. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2674] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Marchand
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | - Jean‐Antoine Martin
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | - David Collot
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | - Olivier Hoang
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | - Ingrid Roulland
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | - Florian Semence
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
| | | | - Michel Audran
- Analyses Department ‐ Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD) Châtenay‐Malabry France
- Laboratoire de Biophysique et Bio‐Analyses, Institut des BiomoléculesMax Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247,CNRS‐ENSCM‐Université Montpellier France
| | - Emmanuelle Varlet‐Marie
- Laboratoire de Biophysique et Bio‐Analyses, Institut des BiomoléculesMax Mousseron (IBMM), UMR 5247,CNRS‐ENSCM‐Université Montpellier France
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23
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Heuberger JAAC, van Eenoo P, Rotmans JI, Gal P, Stuurman FE, Post TE, Daniels JMA, Ram H, de Hon O, Burggraaf J, Cohen AF. Sensitivity and specificity of detection methods for erythropoietin doping in cyclists. Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1290-1301. [PMID: 31232530 PMCID: PMC6790592 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/13/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) is used as doping a substance. Anti‐doping efforts include urine and blood testing and monitoring the athlete biological passport (ABP). As data on the performance of these methods are incomplete, this study aimed to evaluate the performance of two common urine assays and the ABP. In a randomized, double‐blinded, placebo‐controlled trial, 48 trained cyclists received a mean dose of 6000 IU rHuEPO (epoetin β) or placebo by weekly injection for eight weeks. Seven timed urine and blood samples were collected per subject. Urine samples were analyzed by sarcosyl‐PAGE and isoelectric focusing methods in the accredited DoCoLab in Ghent. A selection of samples, including any with false presumptive findings, underwent a second sarcosyl‐PAGE confirmation analysis. Hematological parameters were used to construct a module similar to the ABP and analyzed by two evaluators from an Athlete Passport Management Unit. Sensitivity of the sarcosyl‐PAGE and isoelectric focusing assays for the detection of erythropoietin abuse were 63.8% and 58.6%, respectively, with a false presumptive finding rate of 4.3% and 6%. None of the false presumptive findings tested positive in the confirmation analysis. Sensitivity was highest between 2 and 6 days after dosing, and dropped rapidly outside this window. Sensitivity of the ABP was 91.3%. Specificity of the urine assays was high; however, the detection window of rHuEPO was narrow, leading to questionable sensitivity. The ABP, integrating longitudinal data, is more sensitive, but there are still subjects that evade detection. Combining these methods might improve performance, but will not resolve all observed shortcomings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Joris I Rotmans
- Department of Internal Medicine, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Pim Gal
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands
| | | | - Titiaan E Post
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands.,Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Johannes M A Daniels
- Department of Pulmonary Diseases, VU University Medical Centre, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Herman Ram
- Anti-Doping Authority the Netherlands, Capelle aan den IJssel, Netherlands
| | - Olivier de Hon
- Anti-Doping Authority the Netherlands, Capelle aan den IJssel, Netherlands
| | - Jacobus Burggraaf
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands.,Leiden Academic Centre for Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands
| | - Adam F Cohen
- Centre for Human Drug Research, Leiden, Netherlands.,Department of Internal Medicine, Leiden University Medical Centre, Leiden, Netherlands
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24
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Sutehall S, Muniz-Pardos B, Lima G, Wang G, Malinsky FR, Bosch A, Zelenkova I, Tanisawa K, Pigozzi F, Borrione P, Pitsiladis Y. Altitude Training and Recombinant Human Erythropoietin: Considerations for Doping Detection. Curr Sports Med Rep 2019; 18:97-104. [PMID: 30969231 DOI: 10.1249/jsr.0000000000000577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The benefit of training at altitude to enhance exercise performance remains equivocal although the most widely accepted approach is one where the athletes live and perform lower-intensity running at approximately 2300 m with high-intensity training at approximately 1250 m. The idea is that this method maintains maximal augmentations in total hemoglobin mass while reducing the performance impairment of high-intensity sessions performed at moderate altitude and thus preventing any detraining that can occur when athletes live and train at moderate altitude. This training regimen, however, is not universally accepted and some argue that the performance enhancement is due to placebo and training camp effects. Altitude training may affect an athlete's hematological parameters in ways similar to those observed following blood doping. Current methods of detection appear insufficient to differentiate between altitude training and blood doping making the interpretation of an athlete's biological passport difficult. Further research is required to determine the optimal method for altitude training and to enhance current detection methods to be able to differentiate better blood doping and altitude exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaun Sutehall
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA
| | - Borja Muniz-Pardos
- GENUD (Growth, Exercise, Nutrition and Development) Research Group, University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, SPAIN
| | - Giscard Lima
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM.,Centre for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, ITALY
| | - Guan Wang
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM
| | | | - Andrew Bosch
- Division of Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, SOUTH AFRICA
| | | | - Kumpei Tanisawa
- Department of Physical Activity Research, National Institutes of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, Tokyo, JAPAN
| | - Fabio Pigozzi
- Centre for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, ITALY
| | - Paolo Borrione
- Centre for Exercise Science and Sports Medicine, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, ITALY
| | - Yannis Pitsiladis
- Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UNITED KINGDOM
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25
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Robinson N, Saugy J, Schütz F, Faiss R, Baume N, Giraud S, Saugy M. Worldwide distribution of blood values in elite track and field athletes: Biomarkers of altered erythropoiesis. Drug Test Anal 2018; 11:567-577. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2526] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2018] [Revised: 10/08/2018] [Accepted: 10/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Neil Robinson
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses (LAD), University Centre of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and GenevaCentre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Jonas Saugy
- Centre of Research and Expertise in anti‐Doping sciences ‐ REDsUniversity of Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Frédéric Schütz
- Bioinformatics Core Facility; SIB Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics Lausanne Switzerland
- Centre for Integrative GenomicsUniversity of Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Raphael Faiss
- Centre of Research and Expertise in anti‐Doping sciences ‐ REDsUniversity of Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Norbert Baume
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses (LAD), University Centre of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and GenevaCentre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Sylvain Giraud
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses (LAD), University Centre of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and GenevaCentre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Switzerland
| | - Martial Saugy
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses (LAD), University Centre of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and GenevaCentre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne Switzerland
- Centre of Research and Expertise in anti‐Doping sciences ‐ REDsUniversity of Lausanne Switzerland
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26
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Westmattelmann D, Dreiskämper D, Strauß B, Schewe G, Plass J. Perception of the Current Anti-doping Regime - A Quantitative Study Among German Top-Level Cyclists and Track and Field Athletes. Front Psychol 2018; 9:1890. [PMID: 30386274 PMCID: PMC6198251 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2018.01890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
In recent years anti-doping organizations have implemented various measures to deter elite athletes from using performance-enhancing drugs. One of the main challenges in the fight against doping is that the effectiveness of these anti-doping measures is still unknown. Since the effectiveness of the measures depends primarily on the athletes’ perception, this study focuses on the following four objectives: (1) How effective do top-level athletes perceive individual anti-doping measures to be? (2) Are the results stable across different sports and (3) genders? (4) How can the anti-doping measures be structured into appropriate categories? To address these issues the perceived effectiveness of 14 anti-doping measures was surveyed among 146 top athletes from Germany (Cycling: N = 42; Athletics: N = 104) who are members of at least the National Testing Pool. Results reveal significant differences in the perceived effectiveness of the anti-doping measures. Improved diagnostics were considered to be the most effective remedy for doping, followed by increased bans and the implementation of an anti-doping law. In contrast, fines and a leniency program were considered significantly less effective. Second, with the exception of indirect detection methods and increased use of an Anti-Doping Administration and Management System, results were consistent across cyclists and track and field athletes. Third, no significant gender difference was observed. Finally, an exploratory factor analysis showed that all anti-doping measures can be classified into the three categories risk of detection (e.g., control frequency and efficiency), punishment (e.g., fines and bans) and communication (e.g., education program). The results of this study provide a guideline for future research and for anti-doping and sport organizations when developing strategies against doping and allocating their anti-doping budget.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dennis Dreiskämper
- Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Sport Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Bernd Strauß
- Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Sport Psychology, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Gerhard Schewe
- Center for Management, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
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27
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Puchowicz MJ, Mizelman E, Yogev A, Koehle MS, Townsend NE, Clarke DC. The Critical Power Model as a Potential Tool for Anti-doping. Front Physiol 2018; 9:643. [PMID: 29928234 PMCID: PMC5997808 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.00643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2017] [Accepted: 05/11/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Existing doping detection strategies rely on direct and indirect biochemical measurement methods focused on detecting banned substances, their metabolites, or biomarkers related to their use. However, the goal of doping is to improve performance, and yet evidence from performance data is not considered by these strategies. The emergence of portable sensors for measuring exercise intensities and of player tracking technologies may enable the widespread collection of performance data. How these data should be used for doping detection is an open question. Herein, we review the basis by which performance models could be used for doping detection, followed by critically reviewing the potential of the critical power (CP) model as a prototypical performance model that could be used in this regard. Performance models are mathematical representations of performance data specific to the athlete. Some models feature parameters with physiological interpretations, changes to which may provide clues regarding the specific doping method. The CP model is a simple model of the power-duration curve and features two physiologically interpretable parameters, CP and W′. We argue that the CP model could be useful for doping detection mainly based on the predictable sensitivities of its parameters to ergogenic aids and other performance-enhancing interventions. However, our argument is counterbalanced by the existence of important limitations and unresolved questions that need to be addressed before the model is used for doping detection. We conclude by providing a simple worked example showing how it could be used and propose recommendations for its implementation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Puchowicz
- Department of Health Services, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, United States
| | - Eliran Mizelman
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology and Sports Analytics Group, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada
| | - Assaf Yogev
- School of Kinesiology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Michael S Koehle
- School of Kinesiology, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada.,Division of Sport and Exercise Medicine, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Nathan E Townsend
- Athlete Health and Performance Research Centre, Aspetar Orthopaedic and Sports Medicine Hospital, Doha, Qatar
| | - David C Clarke
- Department of Biomedical Physiology and Kinesiology and Sports Analytics Group, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, Canada.,Canadian Sport Institute Pacific, Victoria, BC, Canada
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28
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Overbye M. An (un)desirable trade of harms? How elite athletes might react to medically supervised ‘doping’ and their considerations of side-effects in this situation. THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF DRUG POLICY 2018; 55:14-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drugpo.2017.12.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2017] [Revised: 11/24/2017] [Accepted: 12/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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29
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Cox HD, Miller GD, Lai A, Cushman D, Ganz T, Eichner D. Evaluation of serum markers for improved detection of autologous blood transfusions. Haematologica 2018; 103:e443-e445. [PMID: 29674501 DOI: 10.3324/haematol.2018.190918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Holly D Cox
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Geoffrey D Miller
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,University of Utah School of Medicine - Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Auriella Lai
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Dan Cushman
- University of Utah School of Medicine - Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
| | - Tomas Ganz
- Department of Medicine, David Geffen School of Medicine at UCLA, Los Angeles, CA, USA
| | - Daniel Eichner
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.,University of Utah School of Medicine - Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Salt Lake City, UT, USA
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30
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Salamin O, Kuuranne T, Saugy M, Leuenberger N. Erythropoietin as a performance-enhancing drug: Its mechanistic basis, detection, and potential adverse effects. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2018; 464:75-87. [PMID: 28119134 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2017.01.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2016] [Revised: 01/20/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Erythropoietin (EPO) is the main hormone regulating red blood cell (RBC) production. The large-scale production of a recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) by biotechnological methods has made possible its widespread therapeutic use as well as its misuse in sports. Since the marketing of the first epoetin in 1989, the development has progressed to the third-generation analogs. However, the production of rHuEPO is costly, and the frequent administration of an injectable formula is not optimal for compliance of therapeutic patients. Hence, pharmaceutical industries are currently developing alternative approaches to stimulate erythropoiesis, which might offer new candidates for doping purposes. The hypoxia inducible factors (HIF) pathway is of particular interest. The introduction of new erythropoiesis-stimulating agents (ESAs) for clinical use requires subsequent development of anti-doping methods for detecting the abuse of these substances. The detection of ESAs is based on two different approaches, namely, the direct detection of exogenous substances and the indirect detection, for which the effects of the substances on specific biomarkers are monitored. Omics technologies, such as ironomics or transcriptomics, are useful for the development of new promising biomarkers for the detection of ESAs. Finally, the illicit use of ESAs associates with multiple health risks that can be irreversible, and an essential facet of anti-doping work is to educate athletes of these risks. The aim of this review is to provide an overview of the evolution of ESAs, the research and implementation of the available detection methods, and the side effects associated with the misuse of ESAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Salamin
- Center for Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences - REDs, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Tiia Kuuranne
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Martial Saugy
- Center for Research and Expertise in Anti-Doping Sciences - REDs, University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nicolas Leuenberger
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland.
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31
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Garvican-Lewis LA, Vuong VL, Govus AD, Schumacher YO, Hughes D, Lovell G, Eichner D, Gore CJ. Influence of combined iron supplementation and simulated hypoxia on the haematological module of the athlete biological passport. Drug Test Anal 2017; 10:731-741. [PMID: 28929623 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2017] [Revised: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The integrity of the athlete biological passport (ABP) is underpinned by understanding normal fluctuations of its biomarkers to environmental or medical conditions, for example, altitude training or iron deficiency. The combined impact of altitude and iron supplementation on the ABP was evaluated in endurance-trained athletes (n = 34) undertaking 3 weeks of simulated live-high: train-low (14 h.d-1 , 3000 m). Athletes received either oral, intravenous (IV) or placebo iron supplementation, commencing 2 weeks prior and continuing throughout hypoxic exposure. Venous blood was sampled twice prior, weekly during, and up to 6 weeks after altitude. Individual ABP thresholds for haemoglobin concentration ([Hb]), reticulocyte percentage (%retic), and OFF score were calculated using the adaptive model and assessed at 99% and 99.9% specificity. Eleven athletes returned values outside of the calculated reference ranges at 99%, with 8 at 99.9%. The percentage of athletes exceeding the thresholds in each group was similar, but IV returned the most individual occurrences. A similar frequency of abnormalities occurred across the 3 biomarkers, with abnormal [Hb] and OFF score values arising mainly during-, and %retic values mainly post- altitude. Removing samples collected during altitude from the model resulted in 10 athletes returning abnormal values at 99% specificity, 2 of whom had not triggered the model previously. In summary, the abnormalities observed in response to iron supplementation and hypoxia were not systematic and mostly in line with expected physiological adaptations. They do not represent a uniform weakness in the ABP. Nevertheless, altitude training and iron supplementation should be carefully considered by experts evaluating abnormal ABP profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura A Garvican-Lewis
- Mary Mackillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australia
| | | | - Andrew D Govus
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, Sweden
| | | | - David Hughes
- Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australia
| | - Greg Lovell
- Australian Institute of Sport, Canberra, Australia
| | - Daniel Eichner
- Sports Medicine Research and Testing Laboratory, Salt Lake City, Utah, USA
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32
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Wang G, Durussel J, Shurlock J, Mooses M, Fuku N, Bruinvels G, Pedlar C, Burden R, Murray A, Yee B, Keenan A, McClure JD, Sottas PE, Pitsiladis YP. Validation of whole-blood transcriptome signature during microdose recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) administration. BMC Genomics 2017; 18:817. [PMID: 29143667 PMCID: PMC5688496 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-017-4191-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEpo) can improve human performance and is therefore frequently abused by athletes. As a result, the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) introduced the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) as an indirect method to detect blood doping. Despite this progress, challenges remain to detect blood manipulations such as the use of microdoses of rHuEpo. METHODS Forty-five whole-blood transcriptional markers of rHuEpo previously derived from a high-dose rHuEpo administration trial were used to assess whether microdoses of rHuEpo could be detected in 14 trained subjects and whether these markers may be confounded by exercise (n = 14 trained subjects) and altitude training (n = 21 elite runners and n = 4 elite rowers, respectively). Differential gene expression analysis was carried out following normalisation and significance declared following application of a 5% false discovery rate (FDR) and a 1.5 fold-change. Adaptive model analysis was also applied to incorporate these markers for the detection of rHuEpo. RESULTS ALAS2, BCL2L1, DCAF12, EPB42, GMPR, SELENBP1, SLC4A1, TMOD1 and TRIM58 were differentially expressed during and throughout the post phase of microdose rHuEpo administration. The CD247 and TRIM58 genes were significantly up- and down-regulated, respectively, immediately following exercise when compared with the baseline both before and after rHuEpo/placebo. No significant gene expression changes were found 30 min after exercise in either rHuEpo or placebo groups. ALAS2, BCL2L1, DCAF12, SLC4A1, TMOD1 and TRIM58 tended to be significantly expressed in the elite runners ten days after arriving at altitude and one week after returning from altitude (FDR > 0.059, fold-change varying from 1.39 to 1.63). Following application of the adaptive model, 15 genes showed a high sensitivity (≥ 93%) and specificity (≥ 71%), with BCL2L1 and CSDA having the highest sensitivity (93%) and specificity (93%). CONCLUSIONS Current results provide further evidence that transcriptional biomarkers can strengthen the ABP approach by significantly prolonging the detection window and improving the sensitivity and specificity of blood doping detection. Further studies are required to confirm, and if necessary, integrate the confounding effects of altitude training on blood doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guan Wang
- Centre of Sports Medicine for Anti-Doping Research, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK.,Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy
| | - Jérôme Durussel
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Martin Mooses
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Noriyuki Fuku
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Chiba, Japan
| | - Georgie Bruinvels
- School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, Twickenham, London, UK
| | - Charles Pedlar
- School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, Twickenham, London, UK
| | - Richard Burden
- School of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, Twickenham, London, UK
| | - Andrew Murray
- Centre for Sports and Exercise, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | | | - Anne Keenan
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - John D McClure
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | | | - Yannis P Pitsiladis
- Centre of Sports Medicine for Anti-Doping Research, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, UK. .,Department of Movement, Human and Health Sciences, University of Rome "Foro Italico", Rome, Italy.
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33
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Ulrich R, Pope HG, Cléret L, Petróczi A, Nepusz T, Schaffer J, Kanayama G, Comstock RD, Simon P. Doping in Two Elite Athletics Competitions Assessed by Randomized-Response Surveys. Sports Med 2017; 48:211-219. [DOI: 10.1007/s40279-017-0765-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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34
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Clark B, Woolford SM, Eastwood A, Sharpe K, Barnes PG, Gore CJ. Temporal changes in physiology and haematology in response to high- and micro-doses of recombinant human erythropoietin. Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:1561-1571. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2016] [Revised: 02/14/2017] [Accepted: 02/16/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brad Clark
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise, University of Canberra; University Drive North Bruce 2617 ACT Australia
| | - Sarah M. Woolford
- South Australian Sports Institute; Valetta Road Kidman Park 5025 SA Australia
| | - Annette Eastwood
- Department of Physiology; Australian Institute of Sport; Leverrier Crescent Bruce 2617 ACT Australia
- Bond Institute of Health and Sport; Bond University; Laver Drive Robina 4226 Queensland Australia
| | - Ken Sharpe
- Statistical Consulting Centre, School of Mathematics and Statistics; The University of Melbourne; Peter Hall Building Parkville 3010 Victoria Australia
| | - Peter G. Barnes
- South Australian Sports Institute; Valetta Road Kidman Park 5025 SA Australia
| | - Christopher J. Gore
- Department of Physiology; Australian Institute of Sport; Leverrier Crescent Bruce 2617 ACT Australia
- School of Education, Bedford Park Campus; Flinders University; Bedford Park 5042 SA Australia
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35
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Leuenberger N, Bulla E, Salamin O, Nicoli R, Robinson N, Baume N, Saugy M. Hepcidin as a potential biomarker for blood doping. Drug Test Anal 2016; 9:1093-1097. [PMID: 27758046 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/16/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The concentration of hepcidin, a key regulator of iron metabolism, is suppressed during periods of increased erythropoietic activity. The present study obtained blood samples from 109 elite athletes and examined the correlations between hepcidin and markers of erythropoiesis and iron metabolism (i.e., haemoglobin, erythropoietin (EPO), ferritin, erythroferrone (ERFE), and iron concentration). Furthermore, an administration study was undertaken to examine the effect of recombinant human EPO (rhEPO) delta (Dynepo™) on hepcidin concentrations in healthy male volunteers. The effects on hepcidin were then compared with those on reticulocyte percentage (Ret%) and ferritin concentration. There was a significant positive correlation between hepcidin and ferritin, iron, and haemoglobin levels in athletes, whereas hepcidin showed an inverse correlation with ERFE. Administration of rhEPO delta reduced hepcidin levels, suggesting that monitoring hepcidin may increase the sensitivity of the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) for detecting rhEPO abuse. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Leuenberger
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Emanuele Bulla
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Olivier Salamin
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Raul Nicoli
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Neil Robinson
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Norbert Baume
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Martial Saugy
- Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne, Switzerland
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36
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Overbye M. Deterrence by risk of detection? An inquiry into how elite athletes perceive the deterrent effect of the doping testing regime in their sport. DRUGS-EDUCATION PREVENTION AND POLICY 2016. [DOI: 10.1080/09687637.2016.1182119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Marie Overbye
- Department of Environmental and Business Economics, University of Southern Denmark, Slagelse, Denmark and
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sports, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Salamin O, De Angelis S, Tissot JD, Saugy M, Leuenberger N. Autologous Blood Transfusion in Sports: Emerging Biomarkers. Transfus Med Rev 2016; 30:109-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tmrv.2016.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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Leuenberger N, Barras L, Nicoli R, Robinson N, Baume N, Lion N, Barelli S, Tissot JD, Saugy M. Hepcidin as a new biomarker for detecting autologous blood transfusion. Am J Hematol 2016; 91:467-72. [PMID: 26822428 DOI: 10.1002/ajh.24313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Autologous blood transfusion (ABT) is an efficient way to increase sport performance. It is also the most challenging doping method to detect. At present, individual follow-up of haematological variables via the athlete biological passport (ABP) is used to detect it. Quantification of a novel hepatic peptide called hepcidin may be a new alternative to detect ABT. In this prospective clinical trial, healthy subjects received a saline injection for the control phase, after which they donated blood that was stored and then transfused 36 days later. The impact of ABT on hepcidin as well as haematological parameters, iron metabolism, and inflammation markers was investigated. Blood transfusion had a particularly marked effect on hepcidin concentrations compared to the other biomarkers, which included haematological variables. Hepcidin concentrations increased significantly: 12 hr and 1 day after blood reinfusion, these concentrations rose by seven- and fourfold, respectively. No significant change was observed in the control phase. Hepcidin quantification is a cost-effective strategy that could be used in an "ironomics" strategy to improve the detection of ABT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Leuenberger
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Switzerland
| | - Laura Barras
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Switzerland
| | - Raul Nicoli
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Switzerland
| | - Neil Robinson
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Switzerland
| | - Norbert Baume
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Switzerland
| | - Niels Lion
- Transfusion Interrégionale CRS, site d'Epalinges; Switzerland
| | - Stefano Barelli
- Transfusion Interrégionale CRS, site d'Epalinges; Switzerland
| | | | - Martial Saugy
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois (CHUV), Swiss Laboratory for Doping Analyses, University Center of Legal Medicine, Lausanne and Geneva, Centre Hospitalier Universitaire Vaudois and University of Lausanne; Switzerland
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Durussel J, Haile DW, Mooses K, Daskalaki E, Beattie W, Mooses M, Mekonen W, Ongaro N, Anjila E, Patel RK, Padmanabhan N, McBride MW, McClure JD, Pitsiladis YP. Blood transcriptional signature of recombinant human erythropoietin administration and implications for antidoping strategies. Physiol Genomics 2016; 48:202-9. [DOI: 10.1152/physiolgenomics.00108.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 01/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Recombinant human erythropoietin (rHuEPO) is frequently abused by athletes as a performance-enhancing drug, despite being prohibited by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Although the methods to detect blood doping, including rHuEPO injections, have improved in recent years, they remain imperfect. In a proof-of-principle study, we identified, replicated, and validated the whole blood transcriptional signature of rHuEPO in endurance-trained Caucasian males at sea level ( n = 18) and Kenyan endurance runners at moderate altitude ( n = 20), all of whom received rHuEPO injections for 4 wk. Transcriptional profiling shows that hundreds of transcripts were altered by rHuEPO in both cohorts. The main regulated expression pattern, observed in all participants, was characterized by a “rebound” effect with a profound upregulation during rHuEPO and a subsequent downregulation up to 4 wk postadministration. The functions of the identified genes were mainly related to the functional and structural properties of the red blood cell. Of the genes identified to be differentially expressed during and post-rHuEPO, we further confirmed a whole blood 34-transcript signature that can distinguish between samples collected pre-, during, and post-rHuEPO administration. By providing biomarkers that can reveal rHuEPO use, our findings represent an advance in the development of new methods for the detection of blood doping.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jérôme Durussel
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | | | - Kerli Mooses
- Faculty of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Evangelia Daskalaki
- Strathclyde Institute of Pharmacy and Biomedical Sciences, University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Wendy Beattie
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Martin Mooses
- Faculty of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Wondyefraw Mekonen
- Department of Medical Physiology, Addis Ababa University, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia
| | - Neford Ongaro
- Department of Medical Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya; and
| | - Edwin Anjila
- Department of Medical Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Health Sciences, Moi University, Eldoret, Kenya; and
| | - Rajan K. Patel
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Neal Padmanabhan
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Martin W. McBride
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - John D. McClure
- Institute of Cardiovascular and Medical Sciences, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Yannis P. Pitsiladis
- FIMS Reference Collaborating Centre of Sports Medicine for Anti-Doping Research, University of Brighton, Eastbourne, United Kingdom
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Buisson C, Marchand A, Bailloux I, Lahaussois A, Martin L, Molina A. Detection by LC-MS/MS of HIF stabilizer FG-4592 used as a new doping agent: Investigation on a positive case. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2016; 121:181-187. [PMID: 26808067 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2016.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/12/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Stabilizing the labile factor HIF (hypoxia inducible factor) for therapeutic use has led to the development of various molecules by pharmaceutical companies. These HIF stabilizers show promising erythropoiesis stimulating capacities and are of great interest for patients with chronical kidney disease and anemia. Amongst them FG-4592 from FibroGen is now under phase 3 of clinical studies. While this drug is still under investigation, a parallel market already allows to buy this product, which could be tempting for some athletes willing to increase their performances. To avoid such a use for doping purpose, WADA has listed HIF stabilizers and FG-4592 in particular as prohibited substances since 2011 and some anti-doping laboratories have developed a technique of identification of FG-4592 in urine. Here, we described the first case ever identified by an anti-doping laboratory of an athlete using FG-4592. Detection and confirmation in urinary samples was performed by LC-MS/MS. In addition, potential indirect markers erythropoietin (EPO) and hematological parameters followed in the Athlete Biological Passport (ABP) were analyzed during and after the period of use but showed no profound alterations. Only ABPS (abnormal blood profile score) reached (but did not exceed) the upper limit proposed by the ABP adaptive model just after the period of use of FG-4592. Altogether this case sends a warning for anti-doping laboratories which now must strengthen surveillance on HIF stabilizers and develop sensitive methods of detection for this new class of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Buisson
- Analysis Department-Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), 143 avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France.
| | - A Marchand
- Analysis Department-Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), 143 avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France.
| | - I Bailloux
- Analysis Department-Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), 143 avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - A Lahaussois
- Analysis Department-Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), 143 avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - L Martin
- Analysis Department-Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), 143 avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
| | - A Molina
- Analysis Department-Agence Française de Lutte contre le Dopage (AFLD), 143 avenue Roger Salengro, 92290 Châtenay-Malabry, France
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Bejder J, Aachmann-Andersen NJ, Bonne TC, Olsen NV, Nordsborg NB. Detection of erythropoietin misuse by the Athlete Biological Passport combined with reticulocyte percentage. Drug Test Anal 2015; 8:1049-1055. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1932] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 11/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | | | - Thomas Christian Bonne
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Niels Vidiendal Olsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology; University of Copenhagen
- Department of Neuroanesthesia, The Neuroscience Center; Copenhagen University Hospital (Rigshospitalet); Copenhagen Denmark
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Smith ACT, Stewart B. Why the war on drugs in sport will never be won. Harm Reduct J 2015; 12:53. [PMID: 26556215 PMCID: PMC4641409 DOI: 10.1186/s12954-015-0087-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2015] [Accepted: 11/02/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent exposes of drug use in sports suggest that doping might be more problematic than doping-control test results reveal. A zero-tolerance (ZT) model, which aims to eliminate the use, has dominated the thinking of sport's policy makers over the last 15 years. In light of the limitations associated with ZT-based policy, we propose an alternative policy, one based on controlled use and harm reduction principles. We argue that substance control policies underpinned by harm reduction (HR) principles of social utility and public value will deliver superior social outcomes. First, a harm reduction approach better accommodates the competitive realities of sports and the impact of elite sports' emphasis on performance at all costs. Second, HR prioritises athlete welfare over sport and brand reputation. Finally, while appreciating the regulatory and risk management responsibilities of sports' governing bodies, the HR model offers greater space to the athlete's right to privacy, and right to personal autonomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron C T Smith
- College of Business and Law, RMIT University, Melbourne, Australia.
| | - Bob Stewart
- College of Sport and Exercise Science, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia.
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Citartan M, Gopinath SC, Chen Y, Lakshmipriya T, Tang TH. Monitoring recombinant human erythropoietin abuse among athletes. Biosens Bioelectron 2015; 63:86-98. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2014.06.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/27/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Bonne TC, Lundby C, Lundby AK, Sander M, Bejder J, Nordsborg NB. Altitude training causes haematological fluctuations with relevance for the Athlete Biological Passport. Drug Test Anal 2014; 7:655-62. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2014] [Revised: 10/15/2014] [Accepted: 11/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Carsten Lundby
- Zurich Center of Integrative Human Physiology; Institute of Physiology, University of Zürich; Switzerland
| | - Anne Kristine Lundby
- Department of Cardiology; Copenhagen University Hospital at Hvidovre; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Mikael Sander
- Department of Cardiology; Copenhagen University Hospital at Hvidovre; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Jacob Bejder
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and Sport Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Denmark
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Aachmann-Andersen NJ, Just Christensen S, Lisbjerg K, Oturai P, Meinild-Lundby AK, Holstein-Rathlou NH, Lundby C, Vidiendal Olsen N. Recombinant erythropoietin in humans has a prolonged effect on circulating erythropoietin isoform distribution. PLoS One 2014; 9:e110903. [PMID: 25335123 PMCID: PMC4204994 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0110903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 09/24/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The membrane-assisted isoform immunoassay (MAIIA) quantitates erythropoietin (EPO) isoforms as percentages of migrated isoforms (PMI). We evaluated the effect of recombinant human EPO (rhEPO) on the distribution of EPO isoforms in plasma in a randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blinded, cross-over study. 16 healthy subjects received either low-dose Epoetin beta (5000 IU on days 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13); high-dose Epoetin beta (30.000 IU on days 1, 2 and 3 and placebo on days 5, 7, 9, 11 and 13); or placebo on all days. PMI on days 4, 11 and 25 was determined by interaction of N-acetyl glucosamine with the glycosylation dependent desorption of EPO isoforms. At day 25, plasma-EPO in both rhEPO groups had returned to values not different from the placebo group. PMI with placebo, reflecting the endogenous EPO isoforms, averaged 82.5 (10.3) % (mean (SD)). High-dose Epoetin beta decreased PMI on days 4 and 11 to 31.0 (4.2)% (p<0.00001) and 45.2 (7.3)% (p<0.00001). Low-dose Epoetin beta decreased PMI on days 4 and 11 to 46.0 (12.8)% (p<0.00001) and 46.1 (10.4)% (p<0.00001). In both rhEPO groups, PMI on day 25 was still decreased (high-dose Epoetin beta: 72.9 (19.4)% (p = 0.029); low-dose Epoetin beta: 73.1 (17.8)% (p = 0.039)). In conclusion, Epoetin beta leaves a footprint in the plasma-EPO isoform pattern. MAIIA can detect changes in EPO isoform distribution up til at least three weeks after administration of Epoetin beta even though the total EPO concentration has returned to normal.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Søren Just Christensen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Kristian Lisbjerg
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Peter Oturai
- Clinic of Clinical Physiology, Nuclear Medicine and PET, Centre of Clinical Investigation, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Anne-Kristine Meinild-Lundby
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Institute of Physiology, Zürich, Switzerland
| | | | - Carsten Lundby
- Center for Integrative Human Physiology (ZIHP), University of Zurich, Institute of Physiology, Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Niels Vidiendal Olsen
- Department of Neuroscience and Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Neuroanaesthesia, The Neuroscience Centre, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark
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46
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Saugy M, Lundby C, Robinson N. Monitoring of biological markers indicative of doping: the athlete biological passport. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48:827-32. [DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093512] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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47
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Pitsiladis YP, Durussel J, Rabin O. An integrative ‘Omics’ solution to the detection of recombinant human erythropoietin and blood doping. Br J Sports Med 2014; 48:856-61. [DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2014-093529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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48
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Harrison CR, Fang JCY, Walthall KJ, Green CC, Porobic V. Towards the identification of autologous blood transfusions through capillary electrophoresis. Anal Bioanal Chem 2013; 406:679-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-013-7487-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2013] [Revised: 11/04/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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49
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Sanchis-Gomar F, Pareja-Galeano H, Brioche T, Martinez-Bello V, Lippi G. Altitude exposure in sports: the Athlete Biological Passport standpoint. Drug Test Anal 2013; 6:190-3. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.1539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2013] [Revised: 08/14/2013] [Accepted: 08/14/2013] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Fabian Sanchis-Gomar
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology; University of Valencia; Spain
- Fundación Investigación Hospital Clínico Universitario/INCLIVA; Spain
| | - Helios Pareja-Galeano
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology; University of Valencia; Spain
- Fundación Investigación Hospital Clínico Universitario/INCLIVA; Spain
| | - Thomas Brioche
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Physiology; University of Valencia; Spain
- Fundación Investigación Hospital Clínico Universitario/INCLIVA; Spain
- Laboratory M2S (Movement, Sport and Health Sciences); UFR-APS Rennes Cedex France
| | - Vladimir Martinez-Bello
- Faculty of Teaching, Department of Teaching of Musical, Visual and Corporal Expression; University of Valencia; Spain
| | - Giuseppe Lippi
- Clinical Chemistry and Hematology Laboratory, Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine; Academic Hospital of Parma; Italy
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50
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Overbye M, Knudsen ML, Pfister G. To dope or not to dope: Elite athletes’ perceptions of doping deterrents and incentives. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.peh.2013.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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