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Gonjo T, Fernandes RJ, Vilas-Boas JP, Sanders R. Is the use of the coefficient of variation a valid way to assess the swimming intra-cycle velocity fluctuation? J Sci Med Sport 2023:S1440-2440(23)00084-1. [PMID: 37271700 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2023.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2023] [Accepted: 05/15/2023] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Swimming intra-cycle velocity fluctuation has often been assessed using the coefficient of variation, which requires a mathematical assumption of a positive linear relationship between the velocity mean and standard deviation. As this assumption has never been tested, the current study aimed to investigate the within-participant relationship between the mean and standard deviation of the intra-cycle velocity. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. METHODS The intra-trial mean and standard deviation of one stroke cycle centre of mass velocity (vCMmean and vCMSD, respectively) were obtained from 80 front crawl trials (10 participants × eight swimming speeds) using whole-body three-dimensional motion analysis. The linear mixed-effect model and intra-class correlation analysis were used to test the linear relationship between vCMmean and vCMSD (n = 80) and the absolute agreement between vCMmean and vCMSD relative to those during the fastest trial (n = 70). RESULTS Neither the linear regression model (95 % confidence interval range of the fixed effect of vCMmean: -0.003-0.031) nor the intra-class correlation coefficient (ICC = 0.07; p = 0.26) verified linear relationships between vCMmean and vCMSD, which violated the background assumption of coefficient of variation calculation. CONCLUSIONS When investigating the intra-cycle velocity fluctuation, the coefficient of variation should not be used alone. Researchers and practitioners should always interpret/report the obtained results together with the mean and standard deviation to avoid misleading conclusions and feedback because the coefficient of variation obtained from one cycle velocity data is likely biased by mean velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Rehabilitation & Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, UK; Institute for Sport, Physical Education & Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, UK.
| | | | | | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney, Australia
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2
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Intracycle Velocity Variation in Swimming: A Systematic Scoping Review. Bioengineering (Basel) 2023; 10:bioengineering10030308. [PMID: 36978699 PMCID: PMC10044880 DOI: 10.3390/bioengineering10030308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2022] [Revised: 02/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Intracycle velocity variation is a swimming relevant research topic, focusing on understanding the interaction between hydrodynamic propulsive and drag forces. We have performed a systematic scoping review to map the main concepts, sources and types of evidence accomplished. Searches were conducted in the PubMed, Scopus and Web of Science databases, as well as the Biomechanics and Medicine in Swimming Symposia Proceedings Book, with manual searches, snowballing citation tracking, and external experts consultation. The eligibility criteria included competitive swimmers’ intracycle velocity variation assessment of any sex, distance, pace, swimming technique and protocol. Studies’ characteristics were summarized and expressed in an evidence gap map, and the risk of bias was judged using RoBANS. A total of 76 studies, corresponding to 68 trials involving 1440 swimmers (55.2 and 34.1% males and females), were included, with only 20 (29.4%) presenting an overall low risk of bias. The front crawl was the most studied swimming technique and intracycle velocity variation was assessed and quantified in several ways, leading to extremely divergent results. Researchers related intracycle velocity variation to coordination, energy cost, fatigue, technical proficiency, velocity, swimming techniques variants and force. Future studies should focus on studying backstroke, breaststroke and butterfly at high intensities, in young, youth and world-class swimmers, as well as in IVV quantification.
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Gonjo T, Polach M, Olstad BH, Romann M, Born DP. Differences in Race Characteristics between World-Class Individual-Medley and Stroke-Specialist Swimmers. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13578. [PMID: 36294159 PMCID: PMC9603436 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/16/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
The purpose of the present study was to investigate differences between world-class individual medley (IM) swimmers and stroke-specialists using race analyses. A total of eighty 200 m races (8 finalists × 2 sexes × 5 events) at the 2021 European long-course swimming championships were analysed. Eight digital video cameras recorded the races, and the video footage was manually analysed to obtain underwater distance, underwater time, and underwater speed, as well as clean-swimming speed, stroke rate, and distance per stroke. Each lap of the IM races was compared with the first, second, third, and fourth laps of butterfly, backstroke, breaststroke, and freestyle races, respectively. Differences between IM swimmers and specialists in each analysed variable were assessed using an independent-sample t-test, and the effects of sex and stroke on the differences were analysed using a two-way analysis of variance with relative values (IM swimmers' score relative to the mean specialists' score) as dependent variables. Breaststroke specialists showed faster clean-swimming speed and longer distance per stroke than IM swimmers for both males (clean-swimming speed: p = 0.011; distance per stroke: p = 0.023) and females (clean-swimming speed: p = 0.003; distance per stroke: p = 0.036). For backstroke and front crawl, specialists exhibited faster underwater speeds than IM swimmers (all p < 0.001). Females showed faster relative speeds during butterfly clean-swimming segments (p < 0.001) and breaststroke underwater segments than males (p = 0.028). IM swimmers should focus especially on breaststroke training, particularly aiming to improve their distance per stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Rehabilitation & Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole BH12 5BB, UK
| | - Marek Polach
- Faculty of Physical Culture, Palacký University Olomouc, 771 47 Olomouc, Czech Republic
- Department of Competitive Swimming, Czech Swimming Federation, 160 17 Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Bjørn Harald Olstad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, 0863 Oslo, Norway
| | - Michael Romann
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, 2532 Magglingen, Switzerland
| | - Dennis-Peter Born
- Department for Elite Sport, Swiss Federal Institute of Sport Magglingen SFISM, 2532 Magglingen, Switzerland
- Section for High-Performance Sports, Swiss Swimming Federation, 3063 Bern, Switzerland
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4
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Monteiro ASM, Carvalho DD, Elói A, Silva F, Vilas-Boas JP, Buzzachera CF, Fernandes RJ. Repeatability of ventilatory, metabolic and biomechanical responses to an intermittent incremental swimming protocol. Physiol Meas 2022; 43. [PMID: 35760067 DOI: 10.1088/1361-6579/ac7c51] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE This study aimed to determine the repeatability of ventilatory, metabolic and biomechanical variables assessed at a large spectrum of front crawl swimming intensities. We hypothesized a strong agreement (combined with a small range of variation) between a typical step protocol performed in two experimental moments. APPROACH Forty competitive swimmers performed a 7 x 200 m front crawl intermittent incremental protocol (0.05 m∙s-1 velocity rises and 30 s intervals) on two different occasions (48-72 h apart). Pulmonary gas exchange and ventilation were continuously measured breath-by-breath, metabolic variables were assessed during the intervals and biomechanical analysis was done at every protocol step. MAIN RESULTS Concomitantly with the velocity increment, oxygen uptake, carbon dioxide production, ventilation, respiratory frequency, respiratory exchange ratio, averaged expiratory concentrations, end tidal oxygen and ventilatory equivalents for oxygen and carbon dioxide and blood lactate concentrations rose (p < 0.001), averaged expiratory concentrations and end tidal carbon dioxide and duration of inspiration, expiration and total breathing cycle decreased (p < 0.001), while tidal volume and volumes of oxygen and carbon dioxide expired maintained constant. Stroke frequency and stroke length increased and decreased (respectively) with the swimming velocity raise. No differences between experimental moments were observed in most of the assessed variables (p > 0.05), with a low dispersion (0.49-9.94%) except for lactate concentrations and inspiration and expiration durations (11.00-17.16%). Moderate-nearly perfect direct relationships and a good-excellent degree of reliability between moments were verified for all the assessed variables (r = 0.50-1.00, ICC = 0.76-1.00, p < 0.001), except for respiratory exchange ratio. SIGNIFICANCE The reliability analysis confirmed the repeatability of the assessed ventilatory, metabolic and biomechanical variables, with the obtained data well representing swimmers physiological condition when monitoring performance through a commonly used step protocol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Sofia Mottini Monteiro
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 91, Porto, 4200-450, PORTUGAL
| | - Diogo Duarte Carvalho
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 91, Porto, 4200-450, PORTUGAL
| | - Ana Elói
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 91, Porto, 4200-450, PORTUGAL
| | - Francisco Silva
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 91, Porto, 4200-450, PORTUGAL
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 91, Porto, 4200-450, PORTUGAL
| | - Cosme Franklim Buzzachera
- University of Pavia Department of Public Health Experimental and Forensic Medicine, Via Forlanini, 2, Pavia, 27100, ITALY
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Centre of Research, Education, Innovation and Intervention in Sport, Faculty of Sport, University of Porto, Rua Dr. Plácido da Costa, 91, Porto, 4200-450, PORTUGAL
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Washino S, Yoshitake Y, Mankyu H, Murai A. Vertical body position during front crawl increases linearly with swimming velocity and the rate of its increase depends on individual swimmers. Sports Biomech 2022:1-13. [PMID: 35575440 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2022.2071329] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Vertical body position during swimming is assumed to closely affect drag. It is consequently associated with swimming velocity; however, the association between swimming velocity and vertical body position has not yet been sufficiently established. Here, we aimed to clarify how vertical body position increases with front crawl velocity and whether there are inter-individual differences in velocity effect. Eleven college-level male swimmers performed a 15 m front crawl with sustained forced maximal inspiration at various swimming velocities. The body's centre of mass (CoM) was estimated from individual digital human models with inertial parameters using inverse kinematics. The horizontal CoM velocity and vertical CoM position from the water surface were averaged for one stroke cycle as respective indexes of swimming velocity and vertical body position. Linear mixed-effects model analysis revealed that there is a positive trend between swimming velocity and vertical CoM position during front crawl across the participants. These results indicate that swimming velocity is associated with vertical body position during front crawl. Additionally, the linear mixed-effects model with random intercepts and slopes was a better fit than that with only random intercepts, indicating that there are inter-individual differences in the rate of increase in vertical body position against swimming velocity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sohei Washino
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
| | - Yasuhide Yoshitake
- Graduate School of Science and Technology, Shinshu University, Ueda, Nagano, Japan
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
- Department of Sports and Life Sciences, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Hirotoshi Mankyu
- Department of Coaching of Sports and Budo, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, Kanoya, Kagoshima, Japan
| | - Akihiko Murai
- Human Augmentation Research Center, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology, Kashiwa, Chiba, Japan
- PRESTO, Japan Science and Technology Agency, Kawaguchi, Saitama, Japan
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6
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Barbosa AC, Barroso R, Gonjo T, Rossi MM, Paolucci LA, Olstad BH, Andrade AGP. 50 m freestyle in 21, 22 and 23 s: What differentiates the speed curve of world-class and elite male swimmers? INT J PERF ANAL SPOR 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/24748668.2021.1971509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Augusto C. Barbosa
- Meazure Sport Sciences, São Paulo, Brazil
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Renato Barroso
- Department of SportScience, School of Physical Education, University of Campinas, Campinas, Brazil
| | - Tomohiro Gonjo
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
- Department of Rehabilitation and Sport Sciences, Bournemouth University, Poole, UK
| | - Marcel M. Rossi
- Sport Science and Medicine Centre, Singapore Sport Institute, Singapore
| | - Leopoldo A. Paolucci
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Bjørn H. Olstad
- Department of Physical Performance, Norwegian School of Sport Sciences, Oslo, Norway
| | - André G. P. Andrade
- School of Physical Education, Physiotherapy and Occupational Therapy, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
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7
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Hamidi Rad M, Gremeaux V, Dadashi F, Aminian K. A Novel Macro-Micro Approach for Swimming Analysis in Main Swimming Techniques Using IMU Sensors. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2021; 8:597738. [PMID: 33520955 PMCID: PMC7841373 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.597738] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2020] [Accepted: 12/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Inertial measurement units (IMU) are proven as efficient tools for swimming analysis by overcoming the limits of video-based systems application in aquatic environments. However, coaches still believe in the lack of a reliable and easy-to-use analysis system for swimming. To provide a broad view of swimmers' performance, this paper describes a new macro-micro analysis approach, comprehensive enough to cover a full training session, regardless of the swimming technique. Seventeen national level swimmers (5 females, 12 males, 19.6 ± 2.1 yrs) were equipped with six IMUs and asked to swim 4 × 50 m trials in each swimming technique (i.e., frontcrawl, breaststroke, butterfly, and backstroke) in a 25 m pool, in front of five 2-D cameras (four under water and one over water) for validation. The proposed approach detects swimming bouts, laps, and swimming technique in macro level and swimming phases in micro level on all sensor locations for comparison. Swimming phases are the phases swimmers pass from wall to wall (wall push-off, glide, strokes preparation, swimming, and turn) and micro analysis detects the beginning of each phase. For macro analysis, an overall accuracy range of 0.83–0.98, 0.80–1.00, and 0.83–0.99 were achieved, respectively, for swimming bouts detection, laps detection and swimming technique identification on selected sensor locations, the highest being achieved with sacrum. For micro analysis, we obtained the lowest error mean and standard deviation on sacrum for the beginning of wall-push off, glide and turn (−20 ± 89 ms, 4 ± 100 ms, 23 ± 97 ms, respectively), on shank for the beginning of strokes preparation (0 ± 88 ms) and on wrist for the beginning of swimming (−42 ± 72 ms). Comparing the swimming techniques, sacrum sensor achieves the smallest range of error mean and standard deviation during micro analysis. By using the same macro-micro approach across different swimming techniques, this study shows its efficiency to detect the main events and phases of a training session. Moreover, comparing the results of both macro and micro analyses, sacrum has achieved relatively higher amounts of accuracy and lower mean and standard deviation of error in all swimming techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mahdi Hamidi Rad
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Vincent Gremeaux
- Institute of Sport Sciences, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Sport Medicine Unit, Division of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Swiss Olympic Medical Center, Lausanne University Hospital, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | | | - Kamiar Aminian
- Laboratory of Movement Analysis and Measurement, École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
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8
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Santos KBD, Bento PCB, Payton C, Rodacki ALF. Kinematic Parameters After Repeated Swimming Efforts in Higher and Lower Proficiency Swimmers and Para-Swimmers. RESEARCH QUARTERLY FOR EXERCISE AND SPORT 2020; 91:574-582. [PMID: 31976823 DOI: 10.1080/02701367.2019.1693011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2019] [Accepted: 11/08/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Purpose: The aim of this study was to determine changes in swimming parameters, stroke coordination, and symmetry after repeated high-intensity swimming efforts in swimmers of different performance levels and para-swimmers. Method: Forty swimmers (20 able-bodied, allocated to higher and lower performance groups-G1 and G2, respectively-and 20 impaired swimmers-S5 to S10) were recorded by four underwater cameras while performing repeated 50 m maximum front-crawl swimming with a ten-second interval for each time endured by the swimmer. A cycle stroke was digitized using SIMI Reality Motion Systems in the first and last trials to analyze the kinematic parameters. The comparison among groups and conditions was performed by Mixed ANOVA Models with p < .05. Results: For all groups, swimming velocity, stroke rate, and stroke index showed reduction over time, while stroke length and intracyclic velocity variation did not show significant changes. Conclusions: Training to maintain stroke rate is necessary to support performance since it is the main cause of velocity decrease. Stroke dimensions and individual underwater phases were not sufficient to distinguish groups or conditions. Hand velocity decreased probably due to a decline in energy capacity, propulsive force and passive drag caused by the fatigue process.
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9
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Rejman M, Siemontowski P, Siemienski A. Comparison of performance of various leg-kicking techniques in fin swimming in terms of achieving the different goals of underwater activities. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0236504. [PMID: 32745109 PMCID: PMC7398542 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0236504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 07/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare underwater fin swimming performance using dolphin, flutter and breaststroke kicks with and without diving gear. Performance was evaluated in terms of average swimming velocity. The parameters of spatiotemporal structure of the stroke reflecting to the swimming economy were employed. Conscious modifications in propulsion technique were considered here with the aim of controlling swimming performance. A total of ten professional scuba divers swam at maximal speed underwater for 50m using each of three techniques: dolphin, flutter, or breaststroke kicks. Swimmers' performance was compared between holding their breath and using breathing apparatus. Two cameras recorded their movements in sagittal and transverse planes. The average swimming velocity (vav), stroke length (SL), stroke rate (SR), index of variation of intracycle velocity (VIVIndex) and stroke index (SI) were estimated. Relative to the other techniques, the dolphin kick without a diving gear demonstrated the highest vav and low SI and VIVIndex values, which reflects the most advantageous economy of propulsion at given velocity. Given the lack of statistical differences, using the breaststroke kick and flutter kick when swimming with a diving gear seems to be comparable to dolphin-kick in terms of average velocity and parameters reflecting the economy of propulsion. Thus, a search for fin swimming techniques with the aim of achieving specific goals seemed reasonable. The results suggest, that performance achieved while using various fin swimming techniques was probably controlled by different strategies of leg movements. These strategies revealed differences in a spatiotemporal (SR-SL) structure of the stroke and they were closely associated in terms of the velocity variation decrease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marek Rejman
- Department of Swimming, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Siemontowski
- Department of Technology in Underwater Activities, Polish Naval Academy, Gdynia, Poland
| | - Adam Siemienski
- Department of Biomechanics, University School of Physical Education in Wroclaw, Wroclaw, Poland
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10
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Zamparo P, Cortesi M, Gatta G. The energy cost of swimming and its determinants. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 120:41-66. [PMID: 31807901 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04270-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The energy expended to transport the body over a given distance (C, the energy cost) increases with speed both on land and in water. At any given speed, C is lower on land (e.g., running or cycling) than in water (e.g., swimming or kayaking) and this difference can be easily understood when one considers that energy should be expended (among the others) to overcome resistive forces since these, at any given speed, are far larger in water (hydrodynamic resistance, drag) than on land (aerodynamic resistance). Another reason for the differences in C between water and land locomotion is the lower capability to exert useful forces in water than on land (e.g., a lower propelling efficiency in the former case). These two parameters (drag and efficiency) not only can explain the differences in C between land and water locomotion but can also explain the differences in C within a given form of locomotion (swimming at the surface, which is the topic of this review): e.g., differences between strokes or between swimmers of different age, sex, and technical level. In this review, the determinants of C (drag and efficiency, as well as energy expenditure in its aerobic and anaerobic components) will, thus, be described and discussed. In aquatic locomotion it is difficult to obtain quantitative measures of drag and efficiency and only a comprehensive (biophysical) approach could allow to understand which estimates are "reasonable" and which are not. Examples of these calculations are also reported and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paola Zamparo
- Department of Neurosciences, Biomedicine and Movement Sciences, University of Verona, Via Felice Casorati 43, 37131, Verona, Italy.
| | - Matteo Cortesi
- Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Giorgio Gatta
- Department of Life Quality Studies, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
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11
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Gonjo T, McCabe C, Coleman S, Soares S, Fernandes RJ, Vilas-Boas JP, Sanders R. Do swimmers conform to criterion speed during pace-controlled swimming in a 25-m pool using a visual light pacer? Sports Biomech 2019; 20:651-664. [PMID: 30893017 DOI: 10.1080/14763141.2019.1572781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate whether swimmers follow the instructed speed (vtarget) accurately with the aid of a commercial visual light pacer during front crawl and backstroke swimming in a 25 m pool. Ten male swimmers performed 50 m front crawl and backstroke at different speeds (controlled by a visual light pacer) in a 25 m pool. The mean speed during the 50 m swimming (vS) was quantified from the time measured by a stopwatch. The mean speed of the centre of mass during a stroke cycle in the middle of the pool (vCOM) was calculated from three-dimensional coordinates obtained from Direct Linear Transformation of two-dimensional digitised coordinates of 19 segment endpoints for each of six cameras. Swimmers achieved accurate vS in front crawl and backstroke (ICC = 0.972 and 0.978, respectively). However, vCOM for the single mid-pool sample had lower correlations with vtarget (ICC = 0.781 and 0.681, respectively). In backstroke, vCOM was slower by 4.1-5.1% than vtarget. However, this was not the case in front crawl (1.0-2.7%). With the use of a visual light pacer, swimmers can achieve accurate mean speed overall but are less able to achieve the target speed stroke by stroke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomohiro Gonjo
- Faculty of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan.,Institute for Sport, Physical Education & Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Carla McCabe
- Faculty of Life and Health Sciences, Ulster University, Antrim, UK
| | - Simon Coleman
- Institute for Sport, Physical Education & Health Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Susana Soares
- Faculty of Sport, Centro de Investigação, Formação, Intervenção e Inovação em Desporto, and Laboratório de Biomecânica do Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ricardo J Fernandes
- Faculty of Sport, Centro de Investigação, Formação, Intervenção e Inovação em Desporto, and Laboratório de Biomecânica do Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - João Paulo Vilas-Boas
- Faculty of Sport, Centro de Investigação, Formação, Intervenção e Inovação em Desporto, and Laboratório de Biomecânica do Porto, University of Porto, Porto, Portugal
| | - Ross Sanders
- Faculty of Health Sciences, The University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
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A Practical Estimation Method for Center of Mass Velocity in Swimming Direction During Front Crawl Swimming. J Appl Biomech 2018; 34:342-347. [PMID: 29613822 DOI: 10.1123/jab.2017-0188] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Center of mass (CoM) velocity variation in swimming direction is related to swimming performance and efficiency. However, it is difficult to calculate the CoM velocity during swimming. Therefore, we aimed to establish a practical estimation method for the CoM velocity in swimming direction during front crawl swimming with underwater cameras. Ten swimmers were recorded during front crawl swimming (25 m, maximal effort) using a motion capture system with 18 underwater and 9 land cameras. Three CoM velocity estimation methods were constructed (single-hip velocity, both-hips velocity, and both-hips velocity with simulated arm velocity correction). Each model was validated against the actual CoM velocity. The difference between the single-hip velocity and the actual CoM velocity in swimming direction was significantly larger compared with that of the other 2 models. Furthermore, the accuracy of CoM velocity estimation was increased when both-hips velocity was corrected using the simulated arm velocity. The method allowed estimation of the CoM velocity with only 2 underwater cameras with a maximal difference of 0.06 m·s-1. This study established a novel and practical method for the estimation of the CoM velocity in swimming direction during front crawl swimming.
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13
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Differences in kinematics and energy cost between front crawl and backstroke below the anaerobic threshold. Eur J Appl Physiol 2018; 118:1107-1118. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-018-3841-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/02/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
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15
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Barbosa TM, Ramos R, Silva AJ, Marinho DA. Assessment of passive drag in swimming by numerical simulation and analytical procedure. J Sports Sci 2017; 36:492-498. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2017.1321774] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tiago M. Barbosa
- Physical Education & Sports Science Academic Group, National Institute of Education, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, Polytechnic Institute of Bragança, Bragança, Portugal
| | - Rui Ramos
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
| | - António J. Silva
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Daniel A. Marinho
- Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human Development, Vila Real, Portugal
- Department of Sport Sciences, University of Beira Interior, Covilha, Portugal
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Barbosa TM, Goh WX, Morais JE, Costa MJ, Pendergast D. Comparison of Classical Kinematics, Entropy, and Fractal Properties As Measures of Complexity of the Motor System in Swimming. Front Psychol 2016; 7:1566. [PMID: 27774083 PMCID: PMC5053984 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 09/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The aim of this study was to compare the non-linear properties of the four competitive swim strokes. Sixty-eight swimmers performed a set of maximal 4 × 25 m using the four competitive swim strokes. The hip's speed-data as a function of time was collected with a speedo-meter. The speed fluctuation (dv), approximate entropy (ApEn) and the fractal dimension by Higuchi's method (D) were computed. Swimming data exhibited non-linear properties that were different among the four strokes (14.048 ≤ dv ≤ 39.722; 0.682 ≤ ApEn ≤ 1.025; 1.823 ≤ D ≤ 1.919). The ApEn showed the lowest value for front-crawl, followed by breaststroke, butterfly, and backstroke (P < 0.001). Fractal dimension and dv had the lowest values for front-crawl and backstroke, followed by butterfly and breaststroke (P < 0.001). It can be concluded that swimming data exhibits non-linear properties, which are different among the four competitive swimming strokes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tiago M Barbosa
- Physical Education and Sport Science Academic Group, Nanyang Technological UniversitySingapore, Singapore; CIDESD - Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human DevelopmentVila Real, Portugal
| | - Wan X Goh
- Physical Education and Sport Science Academic Group, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, Singapore
| | - Jorge E Morais
- CIDESD - Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human DevelopmentVila Real, Portugal; Department of Sport Science, Polytechnic Institute of BragançaBragança, Portugal
| | - Mário J Costa
- CIDESD - Research Centre in Sports, Health and Human DevelopmentVila Real, Portugal; Department of Sport Science, Polytechnic Institute of GuardaGuarda, Portugal
| | - David Pendergast
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, University at Buffalo New York, NY, USA
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Olstad BH, Vaz JR, Zinner C, Cabri JM, Kjendlie PL. Muscle coordination, activation and kinematics of world-class and elite breaststroke swimmers during submaximal and maximal efforts. J Sports Sci 2016; 35:1107-1117. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2016.1211306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Abstract
BACKGROUND The assessment of energetic and mechanical parameters in swimming often requires the use of an intermittent incremental protocol, whose step lengths are corner stones for the efficiency of the evaluation procedures. PURPOSE To analyze changes in swimming kinematics and interlimb coordination behavior in 3 variants, with different step lengths, of an intermittent incremental protocol. METHODS Twenty-two male swimmers performed n×di variants of an intermittent and incremental protocol (n≤7; d1=200 m, d2=300 m, and d3=400 m). Swimmers were videotaped in the sagittal plane for 2-dimensional kinematical analysis using a dual-media setup. Video images were digitized with a motion-capture system. Parameters that were assessed included the stroke kinematics, the segmental and anatomical landmark kinematics, and interlimb coordination. Movement efficiency was also estimated. RESULTS There were no significant variations in any of the selected variables according to the step lengths. A high to very high relationship was observed between step lengths. The bias was much reduced and the 95%CI fairly tight. CONCLUSIONS Since there were no meaningful differences between the 3 protocol variants, the 1 with shortest step length (ie, 200 m) should be adopted for logistical reasons.
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Young Swimmers’ Classification Based on Kinematics, Hydrodynamics, and Anthropometrics. J Appl Biomech 2014; 30:310-5. [DOI: 10.1123/jab.2013-0038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this article has been to classify swimmers based on kinematics, hydrodynamics, and anthropometrics. Sixty-seven young swimmers made a maximal 25 m front-crawl to measure with a speedometer the swimming velocity (v), speed-fluctuation (dv) anddvnormalized tov(dv/v). Another two 25 m bouts with and without carrying a perturbation device were made to estimate active drag coefficient (CDa). Trunk transverse surface area (S) was measured with photogrammetric technique on land and in the hydrodynamic position. Cluster 1 was related to swimmers with a high speed fluctuation (ie,dvanddv/v), cluster 2 with anthropometrics (ie,S) and cluster 3 with a high hydrodynamic profile (ie,CDa). The variable that seems to discriminate better the clusters was thedv/v(F= 53.680;P< .001), followed by thedv(F= 28.506;P< .001),CDa(F= 21.025;P< .001),S(F= 6.297;P< .01) andv(F= 5.375;P= .01). Stepwise discriminant analysis extracted 2 functions: Function 1 was mainly defined bydv/vandS(74.3% of variance), whereas function 2 was mainly defined byCDa(25.7% of variance). It can be concluded that kinematics, hydrodynamics and anthropometrics are determinant domains in which to classify and characterize young swimmers’ profiles.
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Santos KB, Bento PCB, Pereira G, Rodacki ALF. The Relationship Between Propulsive Force in Tethered Swimming and 200-m Front Crawl Performance. J Strength Cond Res 2014; 30:2500-7. [PMID: 24531436 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000000410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Santos, KB, Bento, PCB, Pereira, G, and Rodacki, ALF. The relationship between propulsive force in tethered swimming and 200-m front crawl performance. J Strength Cond Res 30(9): 2500-2507, 2016-The aims of this study were to determine whether propulsive force (peak force, mean force, impulse, and rate of force development) and stroke rate change during 2 minutes of front crawl tethered swimming and to correlate them with the stroke rate and swimming velocity in 200-m front crawl swimming. Twenty-one swimmers (21.6 ± 4.8 years, 1.78 ± 0.06 m, 71.7 ± 8.1 kg), with 200-m front crawl swimming performance equivalent to 78% of the world record (140.4 ± 10.1 seconds), were assessed during 2 minutes of maximal front crawl tethered swimming (propulsive forces and stroke rate) and 200-m front crawl swimming (stroke rate and clean velocity). Propulsive forces decreased between the beginning and the middle instants (∼20%; p ≤ 0.05) but remained stable between the middle and the end instants (∼6%; p > 0.05). The peak force was positively correlated with the clean velocity in the 200-m front crawl swimming (mean r = 0.61; p < 0.02). The stroke rates of the tethered swimming and 200-m front crawl swimming were positively correlated (r = 45; p≤ 0.01) at the middle instant. Therefore, the propulsive force and stroke rate changed throughout the 2 minutes of tethered swimming, and the peak force is the best propulsive force variable tested that correlated with 200-m front crawl swimming performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karini B Santos
- 1Sector of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Parana, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil; and 2Department of Phisical Education, Positivo University, Curitiba, Parana, Brazil
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Heat Stroke Risk for Open-Water Swimmers During Long-Distance Events. Wilderness Environ Med 2013; 24:362-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.wem.2013.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2013] [Revised: 04/10/2013] [Accepted: 04/29/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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Gourgoulis V, Boli A, Aggeloussis N, Toubekis A, Antoniou P, Kasimatis P, Vezos N, Michalopoulou M, Kambas A, Mavromatis G. The effect of leg kick on sprint front crawl swimming. J Sports Sci 2013; 32:278-89. [DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2013.823224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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