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Devantier-Thomas B, Deakin GB, Crowther F, Schumann M, Doma K. The Impact of Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage on Various Cycling Performance Metrics: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:1509-1525. [PMID: 38241464 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/21/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Devantier-Thomas, B, Deakin, GB, Crowther, F, Schumann, M, and Doma, K. The impact of exercise-induced muscle damage on various cycling performance metrics: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 38(8): 1509-1525, 2024-This systematic review and meta-analysis examined the impact of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) on cycling performance. The primary outcome measure was cycling performance, whereas secondary outcome measures included creatine kinase (CK), delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and muscular contractions. Data were extracted and quantified through forest plots to report on the standardized mean difference and p values. The meta-analysis showed no significant change in oxygen consumption at 24-48 hours ( p > 0.05) after the muscle damage protocol, although ventilation and rating of perceived exertion significantly increased ( p < 0.05) during submaximal cycling protocols. Peak power output during both sprint and incremental cycling performance was significantly reduced ( p < 0.05), but time-trial and distance-trial performance showed no change ( p > 0.05). Measures of CK and DOMS were significantly increased ( p < 0.05), whereas muscular force was significantly reduced following the muscle-damaging protocols ( p < 0.05), confirming that cycling performance was assessed during periods of EIMD. This systematic review showed that EIMD affected both maximal and submaximal cycling performance. Therefore, coaches should consider the effect of EIMD on cycling performance when implementing unaccustomed exercise into a cycling program. Careful consideration should be taken to ensure that additional training does not impair performance and endurance adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baily Devantier-Thomas
- James Cook University, College of Healthcare Sciences, Sports and Exercise Science, Townsville, Australia; and
| | - Glen B Deakin
- James Cook University, College of Healthcare Sciences, Sports and Exercise Science, Townsville, Australia; and
| | - Fiona Crowther
- James Cook University, College of Healthcare Sciences, Sports and Exercise Science, Townsville, Australia; and
| | | | - Kenji Doma
- James Cook University, College of Healthcare Sciences, Sports and Exercise Science, Townsville, Australia; and
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Flood TR, Clausen E, Kuikman MA, Smith E, McKay AKA, Burke LM, Elliott-Sale KJ. Auditing the representation of hormonal contraceptives in studies assessing exercise performance in women. J Sports Sci 2024; 42:825-839. [PMID: 38896557 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2368762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
Hormonal contraceptive (HC) users have a different ovarian hormonal profile compared to eumenorrheic women. Due to the prevalence of HC use amongst sportswomen, there has been increased research efforts to understand their impact on exercise performance. The aim was to audit this research. Studies identified were assessed for HC type, athlete calibre, performance outcome, study design, and quality of methodological control regarding ovarian hormonal profiles. Sixty-eight different HCs were reported across 61 studies. Monophasic combined oral contraceptive (OCP) pills represented 60% of HCs, followed by other pills [34%, phasic-combined, progestogen-only, and un-specified], phasic and long acting reversible contraceptives [5%, vaginal ring, patch, implant, injection, intrauterine system] and unspecified HCs (1%). Eleven percent of participants using HCs were classified as highly trained or elite/international with no participants being classed as world class. Whilst the number of studies involving HCs has increased two-fold over the past decade, the number of studies ranked as gold standard has not increased (HC; 2003-57%, 2011-55%, 2022-43%. OCP; 2003-14%, 2011-17%, 2022-12%). Future research assessing HCs and exercise performance should adopt high-quality research designs and include a broader range of HCs in highly trained to world-class populations to increase the reach and impact of research in this area.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tessa R Flood
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Institute of Sport, Manchester, UK
| | - Emma Clausen
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Institute of Sport, Manchester, UK
| | - Megan A Kuikman
- Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ella Smith
- Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Alannah K A McKay
- Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Louise M Burke
- Mary MacKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kirsty J Elliott-Sale
- Department of Sport and Exercise Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Institute of Sport, Manchester, UK
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3
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Glenner-Frandsen A, With C, Gunnarsson TP, Hostrup M. The Effect of Monophasic Oral Contraceptives on Muscle Strength and Markers of Recovery After Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage: A Systematic Review. Sports Health 2023; 15:318-327. [PMID: 36154748 PMCID: PMC10170231 DOI: 10.1177/19417381221121653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
CONTEXT Oral contraceptives (OCs) manipulate hormonal fluctuations of the menstrual cycle and affect physical performance. Most investigations on the effect of OCs on physical performance did not discriminate between different types of OCs. Thus, the effects of monophasic OCs (MOCs) - the most common type of OCs - on muscle strength and recovery from exercise are largely unknown. OBJECTIVE To examine the effect of MOC use on muscle strength and markers of recovery after exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in premenopausal women. DATA SOURCES Electronic databases Embase, PubMed, SportDiscus, and Web of Science were searched for studies examining the effect of MOCs on acute muscle strength and recovery. STUDY SELECTION Keywords applied for the study selection were oral contraceptive* AND muscle strength or oral contraceptive* AND muscle damage. STUDY DESIGN Systematic review. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE Lowest quality assessed for an included study in this review was serious risk of bias using ROBINS-I tool made from Cochrane for nonrandomized studies. DATA EXTRACTION A total of 104 studies on muscle strength were identified, of which 11 met the inclusion criteria. Concerning recovery, 51 studies were identified, of which 4 met the inclusion criteria. RESULTS Of the 11 studies included, 10 showed no effect of MOCs on acute muscle strength. Of the 4 studies on recovery, 2 found a greater decrease in muscle strength, and 3 found higher creatine kinase (CK) levels after EIMD in MOC users than in nonusers. The included studies were all rated with moderate-to-serious risk of bias. CONCLUSION These findings suggest that MOCs may impair recovery from EIMD as indicated by lowered muscle strength and elevated CK levels. There is insufficient evidence to conclude whether MOCs acutely affect muscle strength. Moderate-to-serious risk of bias in studies makes interpretation challenging.
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Affiliation(s)
- Astrid Glenner-Frandsen
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and
Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Cecilie With
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and
Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Thomas P. Gunnarsson
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and
Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Morten Hostrup
- Department of Nutrition, Exercise and
Sports, Faculty of Science, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
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Kumagai H, Miyamoto-Mikami E, Takaragawa M, Kuriki K, Goto C, Shibata K, Yamada N, Hosono A, Fuku M, Suzuki S, Fuku N. Genetic polymorphisms in CYP19A1 and ESR1 are associated with serum CK activity after prolonged running in men. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2022; 132:966-973. [PMID: 35175101 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00374.2021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to clarify 1) the influence of genetic polymorphisms in the cytochrome P450 aromatase gene (CYP19A1) on circulating estradiol levels in men and 2) whether estrogen-related genetic polymorphisms, such as the CYP19A1 rs936306 and estrogen receptor-α (ESR1) rs2234693 polymorphisms, predict exercise-induced muscle damage. Serum estradiol levels were examined in young men (n = 167). In a different cohort, serum creatine kinase (CK) activity, an index of skeletal muscle membrane disruption, was analyzed in a 2-days ultramarathon race: baseline, after the first day, and after the second day (114 males and 25 females). Genetic polymorphisms in CYP19A1 rs936306 C/T and ESR1 rs2234693 T/C were analyzed using the TaqMan SNP genotyping assay. Male subjects with the TT genotype of the CYP19A1 polymorphism exhibited significantly higher serum estradiol levels than the C allele carriers. Male runners had significantly higher post-race serum CK activity than female runners. The change in the CK activity during the ultramarathon race was significantly lower in male subjects with the CYP19A1 TT genotype than in those with the CC+CT genotypes, and was correlated with the number of C alleles in ESR1 rs2234693 in male subjects. Furthermore, the genotype scores of these two polymorphisms were significantly correlated with changes in serum CK activity during race (r = ‒0.279, P = 0.003). The results of this study suggest that genetic polymorphisms in CYP19A1 rs936306 influence serum estradiol levels in men, and genetic polymorphisms in CYP19A1 and ESR1 are associated with serum CK activity in men.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroshi Kumagai
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan
| | - Eri Miyamoto-Mikami
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan
| | - Mizuki Takaragawa
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan
| | - Kiyonori Kuriki
- School of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Shizuoka, Shizuoka, Japan
| | - Chiho Goto
- Faculty of Health and Human Life, Nagoya Bunri University, Inazawa, Japan
| | - Kiyoshi Shibata
- Department of Human Life and Sciences, Nagoya University of Economics, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Norihiro Yamada
- Faculty of Agriculture, Setsunan University, Neyagawa, Japan
| | - Akihiro Hosono
- Atsuta Health Center, City of Nagoya, Japan.,Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Mizuho Fuku
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan.,Department of Rehabilitation Medicine, Tsudanuma Central General Hospital, Narashino, Japan
| | - Sadao Suzuki
- Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Nagoya City University, Nagoya, Japan
| | - Noriyuki Fuku
- Graduate School of Health and Sports Science, Juntendo University, Inzai, Japan
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Methodological Considerations for Studies in Sport and Exercise Science with Women as Participants: A Working Guide for Standards of Practice for Research on Women. Sports Med 2021; 51:843-861. [PMID: 33725341 PMCID: PMC8053180 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-021-01435-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 221] [Impact Index Per Article: 73.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Until recently, there has been less demand for and interest in female-specific sport and exercise science data. As a result, the vast majority of high-quality sport and exercise science data have been derived from studies with men as participants, which reduces the application of these data due to the known physiological differences between the sexes, specifically with regard to reproductive endocrinology. Furthermore, a shortage of specialist knowledge on female physiology in the sport science community, coupled with a reluctance to effectively adapt experimental designs to incorporate female-specific considerations, such as the menstrual cycle, hormonal contraceptive use, pregnancy and the menopause, has slowed the pursuit of knowledge in this field of research. In addition, a lack of agreement on the terminology and methodological approaches (i.e., gold-standard techniques) used within this research area has further hindered the ability of researchers to adequately develop evidenced-based guidelines for female exercisers. The purpose of this paper was to highlight the specific considerations needed when employing women (i.e., from athletes to non-athletes) as participants in sport and exercise science-based research. These considerations relate to participant selection criteria and adaptations for experimental design and address the diversity and complexities associated with female reproductive endocrinology across the lifespan. This statement intends to promote an increase in the inclusion of women as participants in studies related to sport and exercise science and an enhanced execution of these studies resulting in more high-quality female-specific data.
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6
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Indirect Markers of Muscle Damage Throughout the Menstrual Cycle. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2021; 16:190-198. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Context: The indirect markers of muscle damage have been previously studied in females. However, inconclusive results have been found, possibly explained by the heterogeneity regarding monitoring and verification of menstrual-cycle phase. Purpose: To determine whether the fluctuations in sex hormones during the menstrual cycle influence muscle damage. Methods: A total of 19 well-trained eumenorrheic women (age 28.6 [5.9] y; height 163.4 [6.1] cm; weight 59.6 [5.8] kg body mass) performed an eccentric-based resistance protocol consisting of 10 × 10 back squats at 60% of their 1-repetition maximum on the early follicular phase (EFP), late follicular phase, and midluteal phase of the menstrual cycle. Range of motion, muscle soreness, countermovement jump, and limb circumferences were evaluated prior to 24 and 48 hours postexercise. Perceived exertion was evaluated after each set. Results: Differences in sex hormones indicated that tests were adequately performed in the different menstrual-cycle phases. Prior to exercise, muscle soreness was higher in the EFP (4.7 [7.7]) than in the late follicular phase (1.1 [3.2]; P = .045). No other variables showed significant differences between phases. Time-point differences (baseline, 24, and 48 h) were observed in knee range of motion (P = .02), muscle soreness, countermovement jump, and between sets for perceived exertion (P < .001). Conclusion: Although the protocol elicited muscle damage, hormonal fluctuations over the menstrual cycle did not seem to affect indirect markers of muscle damage, except for perceived muscle soreness. Muscle soreness was perceived to be more severe before exercise performed in EFP, when estrogen concentrations are relatively low. This may impair women’s predisposition to perform strenuous exercise during EFP.
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Romero-Parra N, Cupeiro R, Alfaro-Magallanes VM, Rael B, Rubio-Arias JÁ, Peinado AB, Benito PJ. Exercise-Induced Muscle Damage During the Menstrual Cycle: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 35:549-561. [PMID: 33201156 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000003878] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Romero-Parra, N, Cupeiro, R, Alfaro-Magallanes, VM, Rael, B, Rubio-Arias, JA, Peinado, AB, and Benito, PJ, IronFEMME Study Group. Exercise-induced muscle damage during the menstrual cycle: A systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 35(2): 549-561, 2021-A strenuous bout of exercise could trigger damage of muscle tissue, and it is not clear how sex hormone fluctuations occurring during the menstrual cycle (MC) affect this response. The aims of this study were to systematically search and assess studies that have evaluated exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in eumenorrheic women over the MC and to perform a meta-analysis to quantify which MC phases display the muscle damage response. The guidelines of the Preferred Reported Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis were followed. A total of 19 articles were analyzed in the quantitative synthesis. Included studies examined EIMD in at least one phase of the following MC phases: early follicular phase (EFP), late follicular phase (LFP), or midluteal phase (MLP). The meta-analysis demonstrated differences between MC phases for delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) and strength loss (p < 0.05), whereas no differences were observed between MC phases for creatine kinase. The maximum mean differences between pre-excercise and post-exercise for DOMS were EFP: 6.57 (4.42, 8.71), LFP: 5.37 (2.10, 8.63), and MLP: 3.08 (2.22, 3.95), whereas for strength loss were EFP: -3.46 (-4.95, -1.98), LFP: -1.63 (-2.36, -0.89), and MLP: -0.72 (-1.07, -0.36) (p < 0.001). In conclusion, this meta-analysis suggests that hormone fluctuations throughout the MC affect EIMD in terms of DOMS and strength loss. Lower training loads or longer recovery periods could be considered in the EFP, when sex hormone concentrations are lower and women may be more vulnerable to muscle damage, whereas strength conditioning loads could be enhanced in the MLP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nuria Romero-Parra
- LFE Research Group, Department of Health and Human Performance, Faculty of Physical Activity and Sport Sciences, Polytechnic University of Madrid (UPM), Madrid, Spain
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8
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Morawetz D, Blank C, Koller A, Arvandi M, Siebert U, Schobersberger W. Sex-Related Differences After a Single Bout of Maximal Eccentric Exercise in Response to Acute Effects: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 2021; 34:2697-2707. [PMID: 30908366 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000002867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Morawetz, D, Blank, C, Koller, A, Arvandi, M, Siebert, U, and Schobersberger, W. Sex-related differences after a single bout of maximal eccentric exercise in response to acute effects: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Strength Cond Res 34(9): 2697-2707, 2020-The most prominent effects after unaccustomed eccentric exercise are muscle damage, muscle soreness, strength loss, and higher concentrations of muscle proteins in the plasma. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate sex-related differences in these acute effects. A systematic literature search in MEDLINE following the PRISMA guidelines was performed. Inclusion criteria were the difference in absolute outcomes between sexes in eccentric muscle strength, strength loss after eccentric exercise, blood concentrations of creatine kinase (CK), and delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS). Results for maximal eccentric torque and CK data were pooled using a random-effect meta-analysis. A meta-regression was conducted to explain heterogeneity. Based on the 23 included trials, men showed significantly higher absolute eccentric strength. No sex-related differences were detected when normalizing strength for body mass, cross-sectional area of the muscle, or fat-free mass. Women displayed a tendency toward greater relative strength loss immediately after exercise. The absolute CK concentrations of men were significantly higher after exercise-induced muscle damage. No significant difference was found between sexes in DOMS. Untrained men and women display similar responses in all measures of relative muscle strength and DOMS. Apart from the enzymatic activity after exercise and the levels of absolute eccentric torque, there is no evidence for sex-related differences immediately after eccentric exercise. Therefore, eccentric training might have the same impact on men and women. One potential sex difference with practical relevance would be the possible difference in fatigue pattern immediately after eccentric exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Morawetz
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, Tirol Kliniken GmbH Innsbruck, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Cornelia Blank
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, Tirol Kliniken GmbH Innsbruck, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Arnold Koller
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, Tirol Kliniken GmbH Innsbruck, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Marjan Arvandi
- Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, Institute for Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
| | - Uwe Siebert
- Department of Public Health, Health Services Research and Health Technology Assessment, Institute for Public Health, Medical Decision Making and Health Technology Assessment, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria.,Department of Health Policy and Management, Center for Health Decision Science, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts; and.,Program on Cardiovascular Research, Institute for Technology Assessment and Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | - Wolfgang Schobersberger
- Institute for Sports Medicine, Alpine Medicine and Health Tourism, Tirol Kliniken GmbH Innsbruck, UMIT-University for Health Sciences, Medical Informatics and Technology, Hall in Tirol, Austria
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9
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Elliott-Sale KJ, McNulty KL, Ansdell P, Goodall S, Hicks KM, Thomas K, Swinton PA, Dolan E. The Effects of Oral Contraceptives on Exercise Performance in Women: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis. Sports Med 2020; 50:1785-1812. [PMID: 32666247 PMCID: PMC7497464 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-020-01317-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Oral contraceptive pills (OCPs) are double agents, which downregulate endogenous concentrations of oestradiol and progesterone whilst simultaneously providing daily supplementation of exogenous oestrogen and progestin during the OCP-taking days. This altered hormonal milieu differs significantly from that of eumenorrheic women and might impact exercise performance, due to changes in ovarian hormone-mediated physiological processes. OBJECTIVE To explore the effects of OCPs on exercise performance in women and to provide evidence-based performance recommendations to users. METHODS This review complied with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses guidelines. A between-group analysis was performed, wherein performance of OCP users was compared with naturally menstruating women, and a within-group analysis was conducted, wherein performance during OCP consumption was compared with OCP withdrawal. For the between-group analysis, women were phase matched in two ways: (1) OCP withdrawal versus the early follicular phase of the menstrual cycle and (2) OCP consumption versus all phases of the menstrual cycle except for the early follicular phase. Study quality was assessed using a modified Downs and Black Checklist and a strategy based on the recommendations of the Grading of Recommendations Assessment Development and Evaluation working group. All meta-analyses were conducted within a Bayesian framework to facilitate probabilistic interpretations. RESULTS 42 studies and 590 participants were included. Most studies (83%) were graded as moderate, low or very low quality, with 17% achieving high quality. For the between-group meta-analysis comparing OCP users with naturally menstruating women, posterior estimates of the pooled effect were used to calculate the probability of at least a small effect (d ≥ 0.2). Across the two between-group comparison methods, the probability of a small effect on performance favouring habitual OCP users was effectually zero (p < 0.001). In contrast, the probability of a small effect on performance favouring naturally menstruating women was moderate under comparison method (1) (d ≥ 0.2; p = 0.40) and small under comparison method (2) (d ≥ 0.2; p = 0.19). Relatively large between-study variance was identified for both between-group comparisons ([Formula: see text]0.5 = 0.16 [95% credible interval (CrI) 0.01-0.44] and [Formula: see text]0.5 = 0.22 [95% CrI 0.06-0.45]). For the within-group analysis comparing OCP consumption with withdrawal, posterior estimates of the pooled effect size identified almost zero probability of a small effect on performance in either direction (d ≥ 0.2; p ≤ 0.001). CONCLUSIONS OCP use might result in slightly inferior exercise performance on average when compared to naturally menstruating women, although any group-level effect is most likely to be trivial. Practically, as effects tended to be trivial and variable across studies, the current evidence does not warrant general guidance on OCP use compared with non-use. Therefore, when exercise performance is a priority, an individualised approach might be more appropriate. The analysis also indicated that exercise performance was consistent across the OCP cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kirsty J Elliott-Sale
- Department of Sport Science, Sport Health and Performance Enhancement (SHAPE) Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK.
| | - Kelly L McNulty
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Paul Ansdell
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Stuart Goodall
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Kirsty M Hicks
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Kevin Thomas
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health and Life Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle-upon-Tyne, UK
| | - Paul A Swinton
- School of Health Sciences, Robert Gordon University, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Eimear Dolan
- Applied Physiology and Nutrition Research Group, Escola de Educação Física e Esporte, Faculdade de Medicina FMUSP, Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Training Considerations for Optimising Endurance Development: An Alternate Concurrent Training Perspective. Sports Med 2020; 49:669-682. [PMID: 30847824 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-019-01072-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Whilst the "acute hypothesis" was originally coined to describe the detrimental effects of concurrent training on strength development, similar physiological processes may occur when endurance training adaptations are compromised. There is a growing body of research indicating that typical resistance exercises impair neuromuscular function and endurance performance during periods of resistance training-induced muscle damage. Furthermore, recent evidence suggests that the attenuating effects of resistance training-induced muscle damage on endurance performance are influenced by exercise intensity, exercise mode, exercise sequence, recovery and contraction velocity of resistance training. By understanding the influence that training variables have on the level of resistance training-induced muscle damage and its subsequent attenuating effects on endurance performance, concurrent training programs could be prescribed in such a way that minimises fatigue between modes of training and optimises the quality of endurance training sessions. Therefore, this review will provide considerations for concurrent training prescription for endurance development based on scientific evidence. Furthermore, recommendations will be provided for future research by identifying training variables that may impact on endurance development as a result of concurrent training.
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11
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Influence of the Menstrual Cycle on Blood Markers of Muscle Damage and Inflammation Following Eccentric Exercise. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2020; 17:ijerph17051618. [PMID: 32131554 PMCID: PMC7084328 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph17051618] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/12/2020] [Revised: 02/26/2020] [Accepted: 02/28/2020] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to evaluate whether the menstrual cycle and its underlying hormonal fluctuations affect muscle damage and inflammation in well-trained females following an eccentric exercise. Nineteen eumenorrheic women performed an eccentric squat-based exercise in the early follicular phase, late follicular phase and mid-luteal phase of their menstrual cycle. Sex hormones and blood markers of muscle damage and inflammation –creatine kinase, myoglobin, lactate dehydrogenase, interleukin-6, tumoral necrosis factor-α, and C reactive protein– were analyzed in each phase. No effect of menstrual cycle phase was observed (p > 0.05), while an interaction for interleukin-6 was shown (p = 0.047). Accordingly, a moderate effect size [0.68 (0.53)–0.84 (0.74)], indicated that interleukin-6 values 2 h post-trial (2.07 ± 1.26 pg/mL) were likely to be higher than baseline (1.59 ± 0.33 pg/mL), 24 h (1.50 ± 0.01 pg/mL) and 48 h (1.54 ± 0.13 pg/mL) in the mid-luteal phase. Blood markers of muscle damage and inflammation were not affected by the menstrual cycle in well-trained women. The eccentric exercise barely triggered muscle damage and hence, no inflammation was observed, possibly due to participants training status. The mid-luteal phase was the only phase reflecting a possible inflammatory response in terms of interleukin-6, although further factors than sex hormones seem to be responsible for this finding.
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12
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Mackay K, González C, Zbinden-Foncea H, Peñailillo L. Effects of oral contraceptive use on female sexual salivary hormones and indirect markers of muscle damage following eccentric cycling in women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2019; 119:2733-2744. [PMID: 31686212 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-019-04254-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/31/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To determine the effects of oral contraceptive (OC) use on salivary concentrations of testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, and its effects on the changes in indirect markers of muscle damage following eccentric cycling in women. METHODS 10 oral contraceptive users at follicular phase (OC-FOL), 10 non-oral contraceptives users at follicular phase (NOC-FOL), and 10 non-oral contraceptives users at ovulation phase (NOC-OV) participated. Subjects performed 30 min of eccentric cycling at 90% of their maximal concentric power output (PO). Maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVC), creatine kinase activity (CK), muscle soreness (SOR), and pain pressure threshold of vastus lateralis (PPT-VL) was assessed before, immediately after, and 24-96 h after cycling. Salivary estrogen, progesterone and testosterone concentrations were measured before, 72 and 96 h after exercise. RESULTS No difference in estrogen levels between users and non-users was observed. Testosterone was 45% lower in OC-FOL than NOC-FOL at 96 h post-exercise (P = 0.01). Progesterone was 30.8-fold higher in NOC-OV than OC-FOL and 9.7-fold higher than NOC-FOL at 96 h post-exercise. The NOC-FOL recovered all indirect markers of muscle damage by 72 h post-exercise (P > 0.05). NOC-OV recovered MVC strength and muscle soreness (SOR and PPT-VL) by 96 h post-exercise (P > 0.05). OC-FOL did not recover baseline values of MVC, SOR, CK, and PPT-VL by 96 h. CONCLUSION These results suggest that recovery after exercise-induced muscle damage took longer in OC-FOL, followed by NOC-OV and by NOC-FOL, respectively. Furthermore, testosterone and progesterone levels may affect recovery of indirect markers of muscle damage in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Mackay
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Cristopher González
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Hermann Zbinden-Foncea
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile
| | - Luis Peñailillo
- Exercise Science Laboratory, School of Kinesiology, Finis Terrae University, 1509 Pedro de Valdivia Av., Providencia, Santiago, Chile.
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13
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The effects of exercise-induced muscle damage on critical torque. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:2225-2236. [DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3710-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2017] [Accepted: 08/29/2017] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
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14
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Oral contraceptive pill use and the susceptibility to markers of exercise-induced muscle damage. Eur J Appl Physiol 2017; 117:1393-1402. [PMID: 28497386 PMCID: PMC5486557 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-017-3629-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2016] [Accepted: 05/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Firstly, to establish whether oral contraceptive pill (OCP) users are more susceptible to muscle damage compared to non-users, and secondly, to establish whether differences can be attributed to differences in patella tendon properties. Methods Nine female OCP users and 9 female non-users participated in the investigation. Combining dynamometry, electromyography and ultrasonography, patella tendon properties and vastus lateralis architectural properties were measured pre and during the first of 6 sets of 12 maximal voluntary eccentric knee extensions. Serum oestrogen levels were measured on the 7th day of the pill cycle and the 14th day of menstrual cycle in OCP users and non-users, respectively. Maximal voluntary isometric knee extension torque loss, creatine kinase and muscle soreness were measured 48 h pre-damage, post-damage, and 48, 96 and 168 h post-damage. Results Oestrogen levels were significantly lower in OCP users compared to non-users (209 ± 115 and 433 ± 147 pg/ml, respectively, p = 0.004). Proposed determinants of muscle damage, patella tendon stiffness and maximal eccentric torque did not differ between OCP users and non-users. The change in creatine kinase from pre to peak was significantly higher in OCP users compared to non-users (962 ± 968 and 386 ± 474 Ul, respectively, p = 0.016). There were no other differences in markers of muscle damage. Conclusion Although our findings suggest that, when compared to non-users, the OCP may augment the creatine kinase response following eccentric exercise, it does not increase the susceptibility to any other markers of muscle damage.
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Hicks KM, Onambélé GL, Winwood K, Morse CI. Muscle Damage following Maximal Eccentric Knee Extensions in Males and Females. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0150848. [PMID: 26986066 PMCID: PMC4795791 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0150848] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/19/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Aim To investigate whether there is a sex difference in exercise induced muscle damage. Materials and Method Vastus Lateralis and patella tendon properties were measured in males and females using ultrasonography. During maximal voluntary eccentric knee extensions (12 reps x 6 sets), Vastus Lateralis fascicle lengthening and maximal voluntary eccentric knee extensions torque were recorded every 10° of knee joint angle (20–90°). Isometric torque, Creatine Kinase and muscle soreness were measured pre, post, 48, 96 and 168 hours post damage as markers of exercise induced muscle damage. Results Patella tendon stiffness and Vastus Lateralis fascicle lengthening were significantly higher in males compared to females (p<0.05). There was no sex difference in isometric torque loss and muscle soreness post exercise induced muscle damage (p>0.05). Creatine Kinase levels post exercise induced muscle damage were higher in males compared to females (p<0.05), and remained higher when maximal voluntary eccentric knee extension torque, relative to estimated quadriceps anatomical cross sectional area, was taken as a covariate (p<0.05). Conclusion Based on isometric torque loss, there is no sex difference in exercise induced muscle damage. The higher Creatine Kinase in males could not be explained by differences in maximal voluntary eccentric knee extension torque, Vastus Lateralis fascicle lengthening and patella tendon stiffness. Further research is required to understand the significant sex differences in Creatine Kinase levels following exercise induced muscle damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. M. Hicks
- Department of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Northumbria University, Newcastle-Upon-Tyne, United Kingdom
- Institute for Performance Research, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Cheshire, Manchester, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
| | - G. L. Onambélé
- Institute for Performance Research, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Cheshire, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - K. Winwood
- Institute for Performance Research, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Cheshire, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - C. I. Morse
- Institute for Performance Research, Department of Exercise and Sport Science, Manchester Metropolitan University Cheshire, Manchester, United Kingdom
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Minahan C, Joyce S, Bulmer AC, Cronin N, Sabapathy S. The influence of estradiol on muscle damage and leg strength after intense eccentric exercise. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115:1493-500. [PMID: 25694209 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3133-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2014] [Accepted: 02/09/2015] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the influence of estradiol on muscle damage and leg strength after intense eccentric exercise. METHODS Eight men (MEN), eight normally menstruating women (WomenNM), and eight women using oral contraceptives (WomenOC) participated in this study. Subjects performed 240 maximal-effort bilateral eccentric contractions of the quadriceps muscle groups designed to elicit exercise-induced muscle damage (EiMD). Serum creatine kinase (CK), myoglobin (Mb), and fatty acid-binding protein (FABP) concentrations were measured before (pre-) EiMD, as well as 0, 6, 24, and 48 h post-EiMD. Peak isometric quadriceps torque (i.e., leg strength) was measured pre-EiMD, as well as 24 and 48 h post-EiMD. RESULTS The increases in CK, Mb, and FABP concentrations from pre- to post-EiMD were greater in MEN (10-fold, 15-fold, and fourfold, respectively) and WomenOC (sevenfold, 11-fold, and ninefold) compared with WomenNM (five-, six-, and threefold; p < 0.05). The decline in leg strength was about 10 % pre- to 24 h post-EiMD in all groups and decreased a further 10-15 % by 48 h post-EiMD in the MEN and WomenOC only. CONCLUSION Our findings suggest an important role of estradiol in blunting the muscle damage response to intense eccentric exercise and preserving muscle function after EiMD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Clare Minahan
- Griffith University Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia,
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17
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Rankin P, Stevenson E, Cockburn E. The effect of milk on the attenuation of exercise-induced muscle damage in males and females. Eur J Appl Physiol 2015; 115:1245-61. [PMID: 25673557 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-015-3121-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Accepted: 01/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The consumption of 500 ml milk following muscle damaging exercise can attenuate decreases in muscle functional capacity and increases in markers of muscle damage and soreness in males. There has been no similar research in female participants. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of milk consumption on exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) in males and females. METHODS Thirty-two team sport players (male n = 16; female n = 16) were randomly, but equally divided into four groups: male milk, male carbohydrate, female milk, and female carbohydrate. Immediately following muscle damaging exercise, participants consumed either 500 ml of milk or 500 ml of an energy-matched carbohydrate solution. Skeletal troponin I (sTnI), creatine kinase (CK), peak torque, counter movement jump height, 20 m sprint performance and passive and active soreness were recorded prior to and 24, 48 and 72 h post-EIMD. RESULTS For females, milk had a likely/very likely beneficial effect on attenuating losses in peak torque at 60°/s from baseline to 24, 48 and 72 h, and a likely beneficial effect in minimising decrements in sprint performance and soreness over 72 h. Milk was unlikely to have a negative effect on serum markers of damage from baseline to 48 and 72 h. For males, milk had an unclear effect on muscle function variables. Milk had a most likely/likely beneficial effect on limiting muscle soreness from baseline to 72 h, and a possible beneficial effect on attenuating increases in CK. The effect on sTnI was unlikely to be negative from baseline-72 h. Overall gender comparisons provided many unclear outcomes. However, female participants demonstrated smaller increases in sprint time, passive soreness, active soreness (non-dominant leg) and sTnI values. CONCLUSION Consumption of 500 ml of milk post-EIMD can limit decrements in muscle function in females, and limit increases in soreness and serum markers of muscle damage in females and males.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Rankin
- Department of Science and Health, Institute of Technology Carlow, Carlow, Ireland,
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