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Hickmott LM, Butcher SJ, Chilibeck PD. Conceptualizing a load and volume autoregulation integrated velocity model to minimize neuromuscular fatigue and maximize neuromuscular adaptations in resistance training. Eur J Appl Physiol 2025:10.1007/s00421-025-05709-1. [PMID: 39864040 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-025-05709-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2024] [Accepted: 01/08/2025] [Indexed: 01/27/2025]
Abstract
Resistance training (RT) load and volume are considered crucial variables to appropriately prescribe and manage for eliciting the targeted acute responses (i.e., minimizing neuromuscular fatigue) and chronic adaptations (i.e., maximizing neuromuscular adaptations). In traditional RT contexts, load and volume are generally pre-prescribed; thereby, potentially yielding sub-optimal outcomes. A RT concept that individualizes programming is autoregulation: a systematic two-step feedback process involving, (1) monitoring performance and its constituents (fitness, fatigue, and readiness) across multiple time frames (short-, moderate-, and long-term); and (2) adjusting programming (i.e., load and volume) to elicit the targeted goals (i.e., responses and adaptations). A growing body of load and volume autoregulation research has accelerated recently, with several meta-analyses suggesting that autoregulation may provide a small advantage over traditional RT. Nonetheless, the existing literature has typically conceptualized these current autoregulation methods as standalone practices, which has limited their extensive utility in research and applied settings. The primary purpose of this review was three-fold. Initially, we synthesized the current methods of load and volume autoregulation, while disseminating each method's main advantages and limitations. Second, we conceptualized a theoretical Integrated Velocity Model (IVM) that integrates the current methods for a more holistic perspective of autoregulation that may potentially augment its benefits. Lastly, we illustrated how the IVM may be compared to the current methods for future directions and how it may be implemented for practical applications. We hope that this review assists to contextualize a novel autoregulation framework to help inform future investigations for researchers and practices for RT professionals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Landyn M Hickmott
- College of Medicine, Health Sciences Program, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada.
| | - Scotty J Butcher
- School of Rehabilitation Science, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
| | - Philip D Chilibeck
- College of Kinesiology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, SK, Canada
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Sánchez-Moreno M, Bachero-Mena B, Sánchez-Valdepeñas J, Nakamura FY, Pareja-Blanco F. Impact of Generalized Versus Individualized Load-Velocity Equations on Velocity-Loss Magnitude in Bench-Press Exercise: Mixed-Model and Equivalence Analysis. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:1480-1490. [PMID: 39389570 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2024-0194] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 07/17/2024] [Accepted: 08/07/2024] [Indexed: 10/12/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE This study analyzed the influence of 2 velocity-based training-load prescription strategies (general vs individual load-velocity equations) on the relationship between the magnitude of velocity loss (VL) and the percentage of repetitions completed in the bench-press exercise. METHODS Thirty-five subjects completed 6 sessions consisting of performing the maximum number of repetitions to failure against their 40%, 60%, and 80% of 1-repetition maximum (1RM) in the Smith machine bench-press exercise using generalized and individualized equations to adjust the training load. RESULTS A close relationship and acceptable error were observed between percentage of repetitions completed and the percentage of VL reached for the 3 loading magnitudes and the 2 load-prescription strategies studied (R2 from .83 to .94; standard error of the estimate from 7% to 10%). A simple main effect was observed for load and VL thresholds but not for load-prescription strategies. No significant interaction effects were revealed. The 40% and 60% 1RM showed equivalence on data sets and the most regular variation, whereas the 80% 1-repetition maximum load showed no equivalence and more irregular variation. CONCLUSION These results suggest that VL is a useful variable to predict percentage of repetitions completed in the bench-press exercise, regardless of the strategy selected to adjust the relative load. However, caution should be taken when using heavy loads.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Beatriz Bachero-Mena
- Department of Human Motricity and Sports Performance, Universidad de Sevilla, Seville, Spain
| | - Juan Sánchez-Valdepeñas
- Department of Sport and Informatics, Physical Performance and Sports Research Center, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
| | - Fabio Yuzo Nakamura
- Research Center in Sports Sciences, Health Sciences and Human Development (CIDESD), University of Maia, Maia, Portugal
| | - Fernando Pareja-Blanco
- Department of Sport and Informatics, Physical Performance and Sports Research Center, Universidad Pablo de Olavide, Seville, Spain
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Mendonca GV, Alves DL, Fitas A, Pezarat-Correia P. Minimum velocity threshold in response to the free-weight back squat: reliability and validity of different submaximal loading schemes. Eur J Appl Physiol 2024; 124:2909-2922. [PMID: 38730035 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-024-05494-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To explore if mean concentric velocity (MCV) of the last repetition before set failure differs between free-weight back squat protocols with greater emphasis on metabolic accumulation vs. mechanical loading. The between-set and between-day reliability of terminal MCV obtained with these different loading schemes was also determined. METHODS Fifteen healthy male participants (18-30 years) were included. They all were required to exhibit a relative strength ≥ 1.5 times their body mass. MCVs were obtained at one-repetition maximum (1RM) and with two submaximal protocols (metabolic emphasis: three sets of 40%1RM with blood-flow restriction vs. mechanical emphasis: three sets 80%1RM without blood-flow restriction). Participants were instructed to reach maximal intended concentric velocity in each repetition up to failure. RESULTS Set failure was achieved at a faster MCV with the metabolic protocol (p < 0.05). The reliability of MCV at failure reached higher values for the metabolic loading scheme. However, while the MCV achieved at failure during the metabolic protocol was systematically higher than the MCV at 1RM (p < 0.05), this was not entirely the case for the mechanical protocol (similar to 1RM MCV during the last sets in both testing days). Finally, the absolute error derived from estimating the MCV at 1RM based on the MCV obtained at set failure with the mechanical protocol was considerably high (≥ 0.05 m/s). CONCLUSION This study indicates that MCV obtained at set failure is dependent on the specificity of the physiological demands of exercise. Thus, MCVs obtained at failure with submaximal loads should not be used to estimate 1RM MCV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Goncalo V Mendonca
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal.
- CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal.
| | - Diogo L Alves
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Afonso Fitas
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal
- CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal
| | - Pedro Pezarat-Correia
- Neuromuscular Research Lab, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal
- CIPER, Faculdade de Motricidade Humana, Universidade de Lisboa, Estrada da Costa, Cruz Quebrada, 1499-002, Dafundo, Portugal
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Robinson ZP, Pelland JC, Remmert JF, Refalo MC, Jukic I, Steele J, Zourdos MC. Exploring the Dose-Response Relationship Between Estimated Resistance Training Proximity to Failure, Strength Gain, and Muscle Hypertrophy: A Series of Meta-Regressions. Sports Med 2024; 54:2209-2231. [PMID: 38970765 DOI: 10.1007/s40279-024-02069-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 06/18/2024] [Indexed: 07/08/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The proximity to failure in which sets are terminated has gained attention in the scientific literature as a potentially key resistance training variable. Multiple meta-analyses have directly (i.e., failure versus not to failure) or indirectly (e.g., velocity loss, alternative set structures) evaluated the effect of proximity to failure on strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes categorically; however, the dose-response effects of proximity to failure have not been analyzed collectively in a continuous manner. OBJECTIVE To meta-analyze the aforementioned areas of relevant research, proximity to failure was quantified as the number of repetitions in reserve (RIR). Importantly, the RIR associated with each effect in the analysis was estimated on the basis of the available descriptions of the training interventions in each study. Data were extracted and a series of exploratory multilevel meta-regressions were performed for outcomes related to both strength and muscle hypertrophy. A range of sensitivity analyses were also performed. All models were adjusted for the effects of load, method of volume equating, duration of intervention, and training status. RESULTS The best fit models for both strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes demonstrated modest quality of overall fit. In all of the best-fit models for strength, the confidence intervals of the marginal slopes for estimated RIR contained a null point estimate, indicating a negligible relationship with strength gains. However, in all of the best-fit models for muscle hypertrophy, the marginal slopes for estimated RIR were negative and their confidence intervals did not contain a null point estimate, indicating that changes in muscle size increased as sets were terminated closer to failure. CONCLUSIONS The dose-response relationship between proximity to failure and strength gain appears to differ from the relationship with muscle hypertrophy, with only the latter being meaningfully influenced by RIR. Strength gains were similar across a wide range of RIR, while muscle hypertrophy improves as sets are terminated closer to failure. Considering the RIR estimation procedures used, however, the exact relationship between RIR and muscle hypertrophy and strength remains unclear. Researchers and practitioners should be aware that optimal proximity to failure may differ between strength and muscle hypertrophy outcomes, but caution is warranted when interpreting the present analysis due to its exploratory nature. Future studies deliberately designed to explore the continuous nature of the dose-response effects of proximity to failure in large samples should be considered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zac P Robinson
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Joshua C Pelland
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Jacob F Remmert
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Martin C Refalo
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Ivan Jukic
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - James Steele
- Faculty of Sport, Health, and Social Sciences, Solent University, South Hampton, England
| | - Michael C Zourdos
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA.
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Iglesias-Soler E, Rial-Vázquez J, Nine I, Fariñas J, Revuelta-Lera B, García-Ramos A. Variability in the Relationship Between Velocity Loss and Percentage of Completed Repetitions During Horizontal Leg Press and Bench Press in Postmenopausal Women. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:1576-1583. [PMID: 38838220 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004825] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/07/2024]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Iglesias-Soler, E, Rial-Vázquez, J, Nine, I, Fariñas, J, Revuelta-Lera, B, and García-Ramos, A. Variability in the relationship between velocity loss and percentage of completed repetitions during horizontal leg press and bench press in postmenopausal women. J Strength Cond Res 38(9): 1576-1583, 2024-This study aimed to analyze the intersubject variability in the relationship between percentage of velocity loss (%VL) and percentage of repetitions performed out of maximum possible (%MNR) in postmenopausal women. Thirty-five postmenopausal active women (58 ± 3 years) performed sets leading to muscular failure, completing 10-13 repetitions, in both leg press (LP) and bench press (BP). Mean lift velocity of each repetition was expressed as a percentage of the fastest repetition, and repetitions were quantified as a percentage of the maximum number of repetitions completed in the set. Given the hierarchical structure of the data, %VL-%MNR relationships were fitted by linear mixed model regressions. A significant intersubject variability in the intercept (i.e., %MNR associated with 0%VL) was detected ( p < 0.001 in both LP and BP), even when centered values of the completed repetitions were included in the models. The estimated variance in the intercept for LP (117.39; SE : 45.41) was almost double that for BP (67.47; SE : 20.27). The variability observed in the intercept entailed variability in the estimated %MNR for specific %VL values. The use of velocity loss thresholds for estimating the intensity of effort in active postmenopausal women does not overcome uncertainty of more traditional methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eliseo Iglesias-Soler
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, Performance and Health Group, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Jessica Rial-Vázquez
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, Performance and Health Group, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Iván Nine
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, Performance and Health Group, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Juan Fariñas
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, Performance and Health Group, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Borja Revuelta-Lera
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sports Sciences and Physical Education, University of A Coruna, Performance and Health Group, A Coruña, Spain
| | - Amador García-Ramos
- Department of Physical Education and Sport, Faculty of Sport Sciences, University of Granada, Granada, Spain; and
- Department of Sports Sciences and Physical Conditioning, Faculty of Education, Universidad Catolica de la Santísima Concepcion, Concepción, Chile
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Refalo MC, Remmert JF, Pelland JC, Robinson ZP, Zourdos MC, Hamilton DL, Fyfe JJ, Helms ER. Accuracy of Intraset Repetitions-in-Reserve Predictions During the Bench Press Exercise in Resistance-Trained Male and Female Subjects. J Strength Cond Res 2024; 38:e78-e85. [PMID: 37967832 DOI: 10.1519/jsc.0000000000004653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
ABSTRACT Refalo, MC, Remmert, JF, Pelland, JC, Robinson, ZP, Zourdos, MC, Hamilton, DL, Fyfe, JJ, and Helms, ER. Accuracy of intraset repetitions-in-reserve predictions during the bench press exercise in resistance-trained male and female subjects. J Strength Cond Res 38(3): e78-e85, 2024-This study assessed the accuracy of intraset repetitions-in-reserve (RIR) predictions to provide evidence for the efficacy of RIR prescription as a set termination method to inform proximity to failure during resistance training (RT). Twenty-four resistance trained male ( n = 12) and female ( n = 12) subjects completed 2 experimental sessions involving 2 sets performed to momentary muscular failure (barbell bench press exercise) with 75% of 1 repetition maximum (1RM), whereby subjects verbally indicated when they perceived to had reached either 1 RIR or 3 RIR. The difference between the predicted RIR and the actual RIR was defined as the "RIR accuracy" and was quantified as both raw (i.e., direction of error) and absolute (i.e., magnitude of error) values. High raw and absolute mean RIR accuracy (-0.17 ± 1.00 and 0.65 ± 0.78 repetitions, respectively) for 1-RIR and 3-RIR predictions were observed (including all sets and sessions completed). We identified statistical equivalence (equivalence range of ±1 repetition, thus no level of statistical significance was set) in raw and absolute RIR accuracy between (a) 1-RIR and 3-RIR predictions, (b) set 1 and set 2, and (c) session 1 and session 2. No evidence of a relationship was found between RIR accuracy and biological sex, years of RT experience, or relative bench press strength. Overall, resistance-trained individuals are capable of high absolute RIR accuracy when predicting 1 and 3 RIR on the barbell bench press exercise, with a minor tendency for underprediction. Thus, RIR prescriptions may be used in research and practice to inform the proximity to failure achieved upon set termination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C Refalo
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Jacob F Remmert
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida; and
| | - Joshua C Pelland
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida; and
| | - Zac P Robinson
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida; and
| | - Michael C Zourdos
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida; and
| | - D Lee Hamilton
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Jackson J Fyfe
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Eric R Helms
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, Florida; and
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
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Martínez-Rubio C, Quidel-Catrilelbún MEL, Baena-Raya A, Rodríguez-Pérez MA, Pérez-Castilla A. Inter-repetition Rest Impact on Percentage of Repetition Completed at Certain Velocity Loss. Int J Sports Med 2024; 45:116-124. [PMID: 38109899 DOI: 10.1055/a-2200-5937] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2023]
Abstract
This study examined the impact of different inter-repetition rest (IRR) configurations (zero seconds [IRR0], three seconds [IRR3], and self-selected less than five seconds [SSIRR]) on estimating the number of repetitions (Nrep) and the percentage of completed repetitions relative to the maximum number of repetitions possible to failure (%rep) after reaching 10%, 20%, and 30% velocity loss thresholds (VLT). Eighteen men completed three sessions, each with a different IRR configuration, separated by 48-72 hours. Single sets of repetitions to momentary muscular failure were performed against 65%, 75%, and 85% of the one-repetition maximum during free-weight back squat and bench press exercises. No significant differences were reported between IRR configurations for the Nrep (P≥0.089) and %rep (P≥0.061), except for %rep after reaching the 20-30%VLT against 65%1RM and the 10-20%VLT against 75%1RM in the bench press exercise (P≤0.048). Additionally, both Nrep and %rep exhibited high interindividual variability (between-subject CV=14-79%) across the different IRR configurations. The individual %rep-%VLT relationships were slightly stronger than the general %rep-%VLT relationships (median R 2 =0.914-0.971 vs. 0.698-0.900). Overall, regardless of the IRR configuration, this novel velocity-based approach does not guarantee the same effort levels across subjects in the free-weight back squat and bench press sets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Martínez-Rubio
- SPORT Research Group (CTS-1024), CIBIS, Research Center, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
| | | | - Andrés Baena-Raya
- SPORT Research Group (CTS-1024), CIBIS, Research Center, University of Almería, Almería, Spain
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Refalo MC, Helms ER, Robinson ZP, Hamilton DL, Fyfe JJ. Similar muscle hypertrophy following eight weeks of resistance training to momentary muscular failure or with repetitions-in-reserve in resistance-trained individuals. J Sports Sci 2024; 42:85-101. [PMID: 38393985 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2321021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
This study examined the influence of resistance training (RT) proximity-to-failure, determined by repetitions-in-reserve (RIR), on quadriceps hypertrophy and neuromuscular fatigue. Resistance-trained males (n = 12) and females (n = 6) completed an 8-week intervention involving two RT sessions per week. Lower limbs were randomised to perform the leg press and leg extension exercises either to i) momentary muscular failure (FAIL), or ii) a perceived 2-RIR and 1-RIR, respectively (RIR). Muscle thickness of the quadriceps [rectus femoris (RF) and vastus lateralis (VL)] and acute neuromuscular fatigue (i.e., repetition and lifting velocity loss) were assessed. Data was analysed with Bayesian linear mixed-effect models. Increases in quadriceps thickness (average of RF and VL) from pre- to post-intervention were similar for FAIL [0.181 cm (HDI: 0.119 to 0.243)] and RIR [0.182 cm (HDI: 0.115 to 0.247)]. Between-protocol differences in RF thickness slightly favoured RIR [-0.036 cm (HDI: -0.113 to 0.047)], but VL thickness slightly favoured FAIL [0.033 cm (HDI: -0.046 to 0.116)]. Mean volume was similar across the RT intervention between FAIL and RIR. Lifting velocity and repetition loss were consistently greater for FAIL versus RIR, with the magnitude of difference influenced by the exercise and the stage of the RT intervention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin C Refalo
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Eric R Helms
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
- Department of Exercise Science and Health Promotion, Muscle Physiology Laboratory, Florida Atlantic University, Boca Raton, FL, USA
| | - Zac P Robinson
- Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - D Lee Hamilton
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
| | - Jackson J Fyfe
- Institute for Physical Activity and Nutrition (IPAN), School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Geelong, Australia
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