1
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Rioux AV, Nsimba-Batomene TR, Slimani S, Bergeron NAD, Gravel MAM, Schreiber SV, Fiola MJ, Haydock L, Garneau AP, Isenring P. Navigating the multifaceted intricacies of the Na +-Cl - cotransporter, a highly regulated key effector in the control of hydromineral homeostasis. Physiol Rev 2024; 104:1147-1204. [PMID: 38329422 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00027.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2023] [Revised: 01/01/2024] [Accepted: 02/03/2024] [Indexed: 02/09/2024] Open
Abstract
The Na+-Cl- cotransporter (NCC; SLC12A3) is a highly regulated integral membrane protein that is known to exist as three splice variants in primates. Its primary role in the kidney is to mediate the cosymport of Na+ and Cl- across the apical membrane of the distal convoluted tubule. Through this role and the involvement of other ion transport systems, NCC allows the systemic circulation to reclaim a fraction of the ultrafiltered Na+, K+, Cl-, and Mg+ loads in exchange for Ca2+ and [Formula: see text]. The physiological relevance of the Na+-Cl- cotransport mechanism in humans is illustrated by several abnormalities that result from NCC inactivation through the administration of thiazides or in the setting of hereditary disorders. The purpose of the present review is to discuss the molecular mechanisms and overall roles of Na+-Cl- cotransport as the main topics of interest. On reading the narrative proposed, one will realize that the knowledge gained in regard to these themes will continue to progress unrelentingly no matter how refined it has now become.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Rioux
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - T R Nsimba-Batomene
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - S Slimani
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - N A D Bergeron
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - M A M Gravel
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - S V Schreiber
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - M J Fiola
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
| | - L Haydock
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
- Service de Néphrologie-Transplantation Rénale Adultes, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, AP-HP, INSERM U1151, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - A P Garneau
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
- Service de Néphrologie-Transplantation Rénale Adultes, Hôpital Necker-Enfants Malades, AP-HP, INSERM U1151, Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - P Isenring
- Department of Medicine, Nephrology Research Group, Laval University, Quebec City, Quebec, Canada
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2
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Chen YS, Gehring K. New insights into the structure and function of CNNM proteins. FEBS J 2023; 290:5475-5495. [PMID: 37222397 DOI: 10.1111/febs.16872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2023] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2023] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Magnesium (Mg2+ ) is the most abundant divalent cation in cells and plays key roles in almost all biological processes. CBS-pair domain divalent metal cation transport mediators (CNNMs) are a newly characterized class of Mg2+ transporters present throughout biology. Originally discovered in bacteria, there are four CNNM proteins in humans, which are involved in divalent cation transport, genetic diseases, and cancer. Eukaryotic CNNMs are composed of four domains: an extracellular domain, a transmembrane domain, a cystathionine-β-synthase (CBS)-pair domain, and a cyclic nucleotide-binding homology domain. The transmembrane and CBS-pair core are the defining features of CNNM proteins with over 20 000 protein sequences known from over 8000 species. Here, we review the structural and functional studies of eukaryotic and prokaryotic CNNMs that underlie our understanding of their regulation and mechanism of ion transport. Recent structures of prokaryotic CNNMs confirm the transmembrane domain mediates ion transport with the CBS-pair domain likely playing a regulatory role through binding divalent cations. Studies of mammalian CNNMs have identified new binding partners. These advances are driving progress in understanding this deeply conserved and widespread family of ion transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu Seby Chen
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Life Sciences Institute, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Kalle Gehring
- Department of Biochemistry & Centre de Recherche en Biologie Structurale, McGill University, Montreal, QC, Canada
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3
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Acute Stress in Lesser-Spotted Catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula Linnaeus, 1758) Promotes Amino Acid Catabolism and Osmoregulatory Imbalances. Animals (Basel) 2022; 12:ani12091192. [PMID: 35565621 PMCID: PMC9105869 DOI: 10.3390/ani12091192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2022] [Revised: 04/27/2022] [Accepted: 05/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Simple Summary In catsharks (Scyliorhinus canicula), air exposure induces amino acid catabolism altogether with osmoregulatory imbalances. This study describes a novel NHE isoform being expressed in gills that may be involved in ammonium excretion. Abstract Acute-stress situations in vertebrates induce a series of physiological responses to cope with the event. While common secondary stress responses include increased catabolism and osmoregulatory imbalances, specific processes depend on the taxa. In this sense, these processes are still largely unknown in ancient vertebrates such as marine elasmobranchs. Thus, we challenged the lesser spotted catshark (Scyliorhinus canicula) to 18 min of air exposure, and monitored their recovery after 0, 5, and 24 h. This study describes amino acid turnover in the liver, white muscle, gills, and rectal gland, and plasma parameters related to energy metabolism and osmoregulatory imbalances. Catsharks rely on white muscle amino acid catabolism to face the energy demand imposed by the stressor, producing NH4+. While some plasma ions (K+, Cl− and Ca2+) increased in concentration after 18 min of air exposure, returning to basal values after 5 h of recovery, Na+ increased after just 5 h of recovery, coinciding with a decrease in plasma NH4+. These changes were accompanied by increased activity of a branchial amiloride-sensitive ATPase. Therefore, we hypothesize that this enzyme may be a Na+/H+ exchanger (NHE) related to NH4+ excretion. The action of an omeprazole-sensitive ATPase, putatively associated to a H+/K+-ATPase (HKA), is also affected by these allostatic processes. Some complementary experiments were carried out to delve a little deeper into the possible branchial enzymes sensitive to amiloride, including in vivo and ex vivo approaches, and partial sequencing of a nhe1 in the gills. This study describes the possible presence of an HKA enzyme in the rectal gland, as well as a NHE in the gills, highlighting the importance of understanding the relationship between acute stress and osmoregulation in elasmobranchs.
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4
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Takvam M, Wood CM, Kryvi H, Nilsen TO. Ion Transporters and Osmoregulation in the Kidney of Teleost Fishes as a Function of Salinity. Front Physiol 2021; 12:664588. [PMID: 33967835 PMCID: PMC8098666 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2021.664588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Euryhaline teleosts exhibit major changes in renal function as they move between freshwater (FW) and seawater (SW) environments, thus tolerating large fluctuations in salinity. In FW, the kidney excretes large volumes of water through high glomerular filtration rates (GFR) and low tubular reabsorption rates, while actively reabsorbing most ions at high rates. The excreted product has a high urine flow rate (UFR) with a dilute composition. In SW, GFR is greatly reduced, and the tubules reabsorb as much water as possible, while actively secreting divalent ions. The excreted product has a low UFR, and is almost isosmotic to the blood plasma, with Mg2+, SO42–, and Cl– as the major ionic components. Early studies at the organismal level have described these basic patterns, while in the last two decades, studies of regulation at the cell and molecular level have been implemented, though only in a few euryhaline groups (salmonids, eels, tilapias, and fugus). There have been few studies combining the two approaches. The aim of the review is to integrate known aspects of renal physiology (reabsorption and secretion) with more recent advances in molecular water and solute physiology (gene and protein function of transporters). The renal transporters addressed include the subunits of the Na+, K+- ATPase (NKA) enzyme, monovalent ion transporters for Na+, Cl–, and K+ (NKCC1, NKCC2, CLC-K, NCC, ROMK2), water transport pathways [aquaporins (AQP), claudins (CLDN)], and divalent ion transporters for SO42–, Mg2+, and Ca2+ (SLC26A6, SLC26A1, SLC13A1, SLC41A1, CNNM2, CNNM3, NCX1, NCX2, PMCA). For each transport category, we address the current understanding at the molecular level, try to synthesize it with classical knowledge of overall renal function, and highlight knowledge gaps. Future research on the kidney of euryhaline fishes should focus on integrating changes in kidney reabsorption and secretion of ions with changes in transporter function at the cellular and molecular level (gene and protein verification) in different regions of the nephrons. An increased focus on the kidney individually and its functional integration with the other osmoregulatory organs (gills, skin and intestine) in maintaining overall homeostasis will have applied relevance for aquaculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marius Takvam
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,NORCE, Norwegian Research Centre, NORCE Environment, Bergen, Norway
| | - Chris M Wood
- Department of Zoology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Harald Kryvi
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway
| | - Tom O Nilsen
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.,NORCE, Norwegian Research Centre, NORCE Environment, Bergen, Norway
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5
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Wu Y, Funato Y, Meschi E, Jovanoski KD, Miki H, Waddell S. Magnesium efflux from Drosophila Kenyon cells is critical for normal and diet-enhanced long-term memory. eLife 2020; 9:61339. [PMID: 33242000 PMCID: PMC7843133 DOI: 10.7554/elife.61339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Dietary magnesium (Mg2+) supplementation can enhance memory in young and aged rats. Memory-enhancing capacity was largely ascribed to increases in hippocampal synaptic density and elevated expression of the NR2B subunit of the NMDA-type glutamate receptor. Here we show that Mg2+ feeding also enhances long-term memory in Drosophila. Normal and Mg2+-enhanced fly memory appears independent of NMDA receptors in the mushroom body and instead requires expression of a conserved CNNM-type Mg2+-efflux transporter encoded by the unextended (uex) gene. UEX contains a putative cyclic nucleotide-binding homology domain and its mutation separates a vital role for uex from a function in memory. Moreover, UEX localization in mushroom body Kenyon cells (KCs) is altered in memory-defective flies harboring mutations in cAMP-related genes. Functional imaging suggests that UEX-dependent efflux is required for slow rhythmic maintenance of KC Mg2+. We propose that regulated neuronal Mg2+ efflux is critical for normal and Mg2+-enhanced memory. The proverbial saying ‘you are what you eat’ perfectly summarizes the concept that our diet can influence both our mental and physical health. We know that foods that are good for the heart, such as nuts, oily fish and berries, are also good for the brain. We know too that vitamins and minerals are essential for overall good health. But is there any evidence that increasing your intake of specific vitamins or minerals could help boost your brain power? While it might sound almost too good to be true, there is some evidence that this is the case for at least one mineral, magnesium. Studies in rodents have shown that adding magnesium supplements to food improves how well the animals perform on memory tasks. Both young and old animals benefit from additional magnesium. Even elderly rodents with a condition similar to Alzheimer’s disease show less memory loss when given magnesium supplements. But what about other species? Wu et al. now show that magnesium supplements also boost memory performance in fruit flies. One group of flies was fed with standard cornmeal for several days, while the other group received cornmeal supplemented with magnesium. Both groups were then trained to associate an odor with a food reward. Flies that had received the extra magnesium showed better memory for the odor when tested 24 hours after training. Wu et al. show that magnesium improves memory in the flies via a different mechanism to that reported previously for rodents. In rodents, magnesium increased levels of a receptor protein for a brain chemical called glutamate. In fruit flies, by contrast, the memory boost depended on a protein that transports magnesium out of neurons. Mutant flies that lacked this transporter showed memory impairments. Unlike normal flies, those without the transporter showed no memory improvement after eating magnesium-enriched food. The results suggest that the transporter may help adjust magnesium levels inside brain cells in response to neural activity. Humans produce four variants of this magnesium transporter, each encoded by a different gene. One of these transporters has already been implicated in brain development. The findings of Wu et al. suggest that the transporters may also act in the adult brain to influence cognition. Further studies are needed to test whether targeting the magnesium transporter could ultimately hold promise for treating memory impairments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanying Wu
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Yosuke Funato
- Department of Cellular Regulation, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Eleonora Meschi
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Kristijan D Jovanoski
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Hiroaki Miki
- Department of Cellular Regulation, Research Institute for Microbial Diseases, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| | - Scott Waddell
- Centre for Neural Circuits and Behaviour, The University of Oxford, Tinsley Building, Oxford, United Kingdom
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6
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Liu M, Dudley SC. Magnesium, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation, and Cardiovascular Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2020; 9:E907. [PMID: 32977544 PMCID: PMC7598282 DOI: 10.3390/antiox9100907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Revised: 09/17/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Hypomagnesemia is commonly observed in heart failure, diabetes mellitus, hypertension, and cardiovascular diseases. Low serum magnesium (Mg) is a predictor for cardiovascular and all-cause mortality and treating Mg deficiency may help prevent cardiovascular disease. In this review, we discuss the possible mechanisms by which Mg deficiency plays detrimental roles in cardiovascular diseases and review the results of clinical trials of Mg supplementation for heart failure, arrhythmias and other cardiovascular diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Man Liu
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, the Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota at Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
| | - Samuel C. Dudley
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Medicine, the Lillehei Heart Institute, University of Minnesota at Twin Cities, Minneapolis, MN 55455, USA
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7
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SLC41A1 is essential for magnesium homeostasis in vivo. Pflugers Arch 2018; 471:845-860. [PMID: 30417250 PMCID: PMC6533229 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-018-2234-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 11/01/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Solute carrier family 41 member A1 (SLC41A1) has been suggested to mediate magnesium (Mg2+) transport by several in vitro studies. However, the physiological function of SLC41A1 remains to be elucidated. In this study, cellular Mg2+ transport assays combined with zebrafish slc41a1 knockdown experiments were performed to disclose SLC41A1 function and its physiological relevance. The gene slc41a1 is ubiquitously expressed in zebrafish tissues and is regulated by water and dietary Mg2+ availability. Knockdown of slc41a1 in zebrafish larvae grown in a Mg2+-free medium resulted in a unique phenotype characterized by a decrease in zebrafish Mg content. This decrease shows that SLC41A1 is required to maintain Mg2+ balance and its dysfunction results in renal Mg2+ wasting in zebrafish larvae. Importantly, the Mg content of the larvae is rescued when mouse SLC41A1 is expressed in slc41a1-knockdown zebrafish. Conversely, expression of mammalian SLC41A1-p.Asp262Ala, harboring a mutation in the ion-conducting SLC41A1 pore, did not reverse the renal Mg2+ wasting. 25Mg2+ transport assays in human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK293) cells overexpressing SLC41A1 demonstrated that SLC41A1 mediates cellular Mg2+ extrusion independently of sodium (Na+). In contrast, SLC41A1-p.Asp262Ala expressing HEK293 cells displayed similar Mg2+ extrusion activities than control (mock) cells. In polarized Madin-Darby canine kidney cells, SLC41A1 localized to the basolateral cell membrane. Our results demonstrate that SLC41A1 facilitates renal Mg2+ reabsorption in the zebrafish model. Furthermore, our data suggest that SLC41A1 mediates both Mg2+ uptake and extrusion.
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8
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A systematic toxicity evaluation of cephalosporins via transcriptomics in zebrafish and in silico ADMET studies. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 116:264-271. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.04.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
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9
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Characterization of two splice variants of EGFR and their effects on the growth of the razor clam. AQUACULTURE AND FISHERIES 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aaf.2018.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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10
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Corre T, Arjona FJ, Hayward C, Youhanna S, de Baaij JHF, Belge H, Nägele N, Debaix H, Blanchard MG, Traglia M, Harris SE, Ulivi S, Rueedi R, Lamparter D, Macé A, Sala C, Lenarduzzi S, Ponte B, Pruijm M, Ackermann D, Ehret G, Baptista D, Polasek O, Rudan I, Hurd TW, Hastie ND, Vitart V, Waeber G, Kutalik Z, Bergmann S, Vargas-Poussou R, Konrad M, Gasparini P, Deary IJ, Starr JM, Toniolo D, Vollenweider P, Hoenderop JGJ, Bindels RJM, Bochud M, Devuyst O. Genome-Wide Meta-Analysis Unravels Interactions between Magnesium Homeostasis and Metabolic Phenotypes. J Am Soc Nephrol 2017; 29:335-348. [PMID: 29093028 DOI: 10.1681/asn.2017030267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2017] [Accepted: 07/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Magnesium (Mg2+) homeostasis is critical for metabolism. However, the genetic determinants of the renal handling of Mg2+, which is crucial for Mg2+ homeostasis, and the potential influence on metabolic traits in the general population are unknown. We obtained plasma and urine parameters from 9099 individuals from seven cohorts, and conducted a genome-wide meta-analysis of Mg2+ homeostasis. We identified two loci associated with urinary magnesium (uMg), rs3824347 (P=4.4×10-13) near TRPM6, which encodes an epithelial Mg2+ channel, and rs35929 (P=2.1×10-11), a variant of ARL15, which encodes a GTP-binding protein. Together, these loci account for 2.3% of the variation in 24-hour uMg excretion. In human kidney cells, ARL15 regulated TRPM6-mediated currents. In zebrafish, dietary Mg2+ regulated the expression of the highly conserved ARL15 ortholog arl15b, and arl15b knockdown resulted in renal Mg2+ wasting and metabolic disturbances. Finally, ARL15 rs35929 modified the association of uMg with fasting insulin and fat mass in a general population. In conclusion, this combined observational and experimental approach uncovered a gene-environment interaction linking Mg2+ deficiency to insulin resistance and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tanguy Corre
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine.,Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Francisco J Arjona
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Caroline Hayward
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine
| | - Sonia Youhanna
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Jeroen H F de Baaij
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Hendrica Belge
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Nadine Nägele
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Huguette Debaix
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Maxime G Blanchard
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Michela Traglia
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Sarah E Harris
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology.,Medical Genetics Section, University of Edinburgh Centre for Genomic and Experimental Medicine and Medical Research Council Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, Western General Hospital, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - Sheila Ulivi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico "Burlo Garofolo," Trieste, Italy
| | - Rico Rueedi
- Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - David Lamparter
- Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Aurélien Macé
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Cinzia Sala
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | - Stefania Lenarduzzi
- Department of Medical Genetics, Institute for Maternal and Child Health, Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico "Burlo Garofolo," Trieste, Italy
| | | | - Menno Pruijm
- Service of Nephrology, University Hospital of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Daniel Ackermann
- University Clinic for Nephrology and Hypertension, Inselspital, Bern University Hospital, University of Bern, Bern, Switzerland
| | - Georg Ehret
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine Specialties, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Daniela Baptista
- Division of Cardiology, Department of Internal Medicine Specialties, University Hospital of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ozren Polasek
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Split, Split, Croatia
| | - Igor Rudan
- Usher Institute of Population Health Sciences and Informatics
| | - Toby W Hurd
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine
| | - Nicholas D Hastie
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine
| | - Veronique Vitart
- Medical Research Council Human Genetics Unit, Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine
| | | | - Zoltán Kutalik
- Institute of Social and Preventive Medicine.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Sven Bergmann
- Department of Computational Biology, University of Lausanne, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, Lausanne, Switzerland.,Department of Integrative Biomedical Sciences, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Rosa Vargas-Poussou
- Department of Genetics, Hôpital Européen Georges Pompidou, Assistance Publique Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France.,Centre de Référence des Maladies Rénales Héréditaires de l'Enfant et de l'Adulte, Paris, France
| | - Martin Konrad
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Hospital Münster, Munster, Germany
| | - Paolo Gasparini
- Department of Medical, Surgical and Health Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste, Italy; and.,Department of Experimental Genetics, Sidra, Doha, Qatar
| | - Ian J Deary
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology.,Department of Psychology, and
| | - John M Starr
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology.,Alzheimer Scotland Dementia Research Centre, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK
| | - Daniela Toniolo
- Division of Genetics and Cell Biology, San Raffaele Scientific Institute, Milan, Italy
| | | | - Joost G J Hoenderop
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - René J M Bindels
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | | | - Olivier Devuyst
- Institute of Physiology, University of Zürich, Zurich, Switzerland;
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11
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Kodzhahinchev V, Kovacevic D, Bucking C. Identification of the putative goldfish (Carassius auratus) magnesium transporter SLC41a1 and functional regulation in the gill, kidney, and intestine in response to dietary and environmental manipulations. Comp Biochem Physiol A Mol Integr Physiol 2017; 206:69-81. [PMID: 28130070 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpa.2017.01.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2016] [Revised: 01/19/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
While magnesium requirements for teleost fish highlight the physiological importance of this cation for homeostasis, little is known regarding the molecular identity of transporters responsible for magnesium absorption or secretion. The recent characterization of the vertebrate magnesium transporter solute carrier 41a1 (SLC41a1) in the kidney of a euryhaline fish has provided a glimpse of possible moieties involved in piscine magnesium regulation. The present study obtained a novel SLC41a1 coding sequence for Carassius auratus and demonstrated ubiquitous expression in all tissues examined. Transcriptional regulation of SLC41a1 in response to dietary and environmental magnesium concentrations was observed across tissues. Specifically, decreased environmental magnesium correlated with decreased expression of SLC41a1 in the intestine, whereas the gill and kidney were unaffected. Dietary magnesium restriction correlated with decreased expression of SLC41a1 in the intestine and gill, while again no effects were detected in the kidney. Finally, elevated dietary magnesium correlated with increased expression of SLC41a1 in the kidney, while expression in the intestine and gill remained stable. Plasma magnesium was maintained in all treatments, and dietary assimilation efficiency increased with decreased dietary magnesium. Consumption of a single meal failed to impact SLC41a1 expression, and transcript abundance remained stable over the course of digestion in all treatments. Transcriptional regulation occurred between 7 and 14days following dietary and environmental manipulations and short-term regulation (e.g. <24h) was not observed. Overall the data supports transcriptional regulation of SLC41a1 reflecting a possible role in magnesium loss or secretion across tissues in fish.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Drago Kovacevic
- York University, Department of Biology, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, M3J 1P3, ON, Canada
| | - Carol Bucking
- York University, Department of Biology, 4700 Keele Street, Toronto, M3J 1P3, ON, Canada.
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12
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Kersten S, Arjona FJ. Ion transport in the zebrafish kidney from a human disease angle: possibilities, considerations, and future perspectives. Am J Physiol Renal Physiol 2017; 312:F172-F189. [DOI: 10.1152/ajprenal.00425.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2016] [Revised: 11/11/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Unique experimental advantages, such as its embryonic/larval transparency, high-throughput nature, and ease of genetic modification, underpin the rapid emergence of the zebrafish ( Danio rerio) as a preeminent model in biomedical research. Particularly in the field of nephrology, the zebrafish provides a promising model for studying the physiological implications of human solute transport processes along consecutive nephron segments. However, although the zebrafish might be considered a valuable model for numerous renal ion transport diseases and functional studies of many channels and transporters, not all human renal electrolyte transport mechanisms and human diseases can be modeled in the zebrafish. With this review, we explore the ontogeny of zebrafish renal ion transport, its nephron structure and function, and thereby demonstrate the clinical translational value of this model. By critical assessment of genomic and amino acid conservation of human proteins involved in renal ion handling (channels, transporters, and claudins), kidney and nephron segment conservation, and renal electrolyte transport physiology in the zebrafish, we provide researchers and nephrologists with an indication of the possibilities and considerations of the zebrafish as a model for human renal ion transport. Combined with advanced techniques envisioned for the future, implementation of the zebrafish might expand beyond unraveling pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie distinct genetic or environmentally, i.e., pharmacological and lifestyle, induced renal transport deficits. Specifically, the ease of drug administration and the exploitation of improved genetic approaches might argue for the adoption of the zebrafish as a model for preclinical personalized medicine for distinct renal diseases and renal electrolyte transport proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Kersten
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; and
- Nephrology Division, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts
| | - Francisco J. Arjona
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; and
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13
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Jansen C, Sahni J, Suzuki S, Horgen FD, Penner R, Fleig A. The coiled-coil domain of zebrafish TRPM7 regulates Mg·nucleotide sensitivity. Sci Rep 2016; 6:33459. [PMID: 27628598 PMCID: PMC5024298 DOI: 10.1038/srep33459] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
TRPM7 is a member of the Transient-Receptor-Potential Melastatin ion channel family. TRPM7 is a unique fusion protein of an ion channel and an α-kinase. Although mammalian TRPM7 is well characterized biophysically and its pivotal role in cancer, ischemia and cardiovascular disease is becoming increasingly evident, the study of TRPM7 in mouse models has been hampered by embryonic lethality of transgenic ablations. In zebrafish, functional loss of TRPM7 (drTRPM7) manifests itself in an array of non-lethal physiological malfunctions. Here, we investigate the regulation of wild type drTRPM7 and multiple C-terminal truncation mutants. We find that the biophysical properties of drTRPM7 are very similar to mammalian TRPM7. However, pharmacological profiling reveals that drTRPM7 is facilitated rather than inhibited by 2-APB, and that the TRPM7 inhibitor waixenicin A has no effect. This is reminiscent of the pharmacological profile of human TRPM6, the sister channel kinase of TRPM7. Furthermore, using truncation mutations, we show that the coiled-coil domain of drTRPM7 is involved in the channel's regulation by magnesium (Mg) and Mg·adenosine triphosphate (Mg·ATP). We propose that drTRPM7 has two protein domains that regulate inhibition by intracellular magnesium and nucleotides, and one domain that is concerned with sensing magnesium only.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chad Jansen
- Center for Biomedical Research, The Queen’s Medical Center and University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
- University of Hawaii Cancer Center and John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
| | - Jaya Sahni
- Center for Immunity and Immunotherapies, Seattle Children’s Research Institute, 1900 9th Ave, Seattle, WA 98101, USA
| | - Sayuri Suzuki
- Center for Biomedical Research, The Queen’s Medical Center and University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
| | - F. David Horgen
- Laboratory of Marine Biological Chemistry, Department of Natural Sciences, Hawaii Pacific University, Kaneohe, HI 96744, USA
| | - Reinhold Penner
- Center for Biomedical Research, The Queen’s Medical Center and University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
- University of Hawaii Cancer Center and John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
| | - Andrea Fleig
- Center for Biomedical Research, The Queen’s Medical Center and University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
- University of Hawaii Cancer Center and John A. Burns School of Medicine, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI-96813, USA
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14
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Barat A, Sahoo PK, Kumar R, Pande V. Solute carriers (SLCs) identified and characterized from kidney transcriptome of golden mahseer (Tor putitora) (Fam: Cyprinidae). Comp Biochem Physiol B Biochem Mol Biol 2016; 200:54-61. [PMID: 27287540 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpb.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2015] [Revised: 06/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
The solute carriers (SLC) are trans-membrane proteins, those regulate the transport of various substances (sugars, amino acids, nucleotides, inorganic cations/anions, metals, drugs etc.) across the cell membrane. There are more than 338 solute carriers (slc) reported in fishes that play crucial role in cellular influx and efflux. The study of solute carrier families may reveal many answers regarding the function of transporter genes in the species and their effect in the existing environment. Therefore, we performed RNA sequencing of kidney tissue of the golden mahseer (Tor putitora) using Illumina platform to identify the solute carrier families and characterized 24 putative functional genes under 15 solute carrier families. Out of 24 putative functional genes, 11 genes were differentially expressed in different tissues (head kidney, trunk kidney, spleen, liver, gill, muscle, intestine and brain) using qRT-PCR assay. The slc5a1, slc5a12, slc12a3, slc13a3, slc22a13 and slc26a6 were highly expressed in kidney. The slc15a2, slc25a47, slc33a1 and slc38a2 were highly expressed in brain and slc30a5 was over-expressed in gill. The unrooted phylogenetic trees of slc2, slc5, slc13 and slc33 were constructed using amino acid sequences of Homo sapiens, Salmo salar, Danio rerio, Cyprinus carpio and Tor putitora. It appears that all the putative solute carrier families are very much conserved in human and fish species including the present fish, golden mahseer. This study provides the first hand database of solute carrier families particularly transporter encoding proteins in the species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashoktaru Barat
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Anusandhan Bhawan, Bhimtal, 263136 Nainital, Uttarakhand, India.
| | - Prabhati Kumari Sahoo
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Anusandhan Bhawan, Bhimtal, 263136 Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Rohit Kumar
- ICAR-Directorate of Coldwater Fisheries Research, Anusandhan Bhawan, Bhimtal, 263136 Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
| | - Veena Pande
- Department of Biotechnology, Bhimtal campus, Kumaun University, Bhimtal, 263136 Nainital, Uttarakhand, India
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15
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Lambert MJ, Cochran WO, Wilde BM, Olsen KG, Cooper CD. Evidence for widespread subfunctionalization of splice forms in vertebrate genomes. Genome Res 2015; 25:624-32. [PMID: 25792610 PMCID: PMC4417111 DOI: 10.1101/gr.184473.114] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2015] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Gene duplication and alternative splicing are important sources of proteomic diversity. Despite research indicating that gene duplication and alternative splicing are negatively correlated, the evolutionary relationship between the two remains unclear. One manner in which alternative splicing and gene duplication may be related is through the process of subfunctionalization, in which an alternatively spliced gene upon duplication divides distinct splice isoforms among the newly generated daughter genes, in this way reducing the number of alternatively spliced transcripts duplicate genes produce. Previously, it has been shown that splice form subfunctionalization will result in duplicate pairs with divergent exon structure when distinct isoforms become fixed in each paralog. However, the effects of exon structure divergence between paralogs have never before been studied on a genome-wide scale. Here, using genomic data from human, mouse, and zebrafish, we demonstrate that gene duplication followed by exon structure divergence between paralogs results in a significant reduction in levels of alternative splicing. In addition, by comparing the exon structure of zebrafish duplicates to the co-orthologous human gene, we have demonstrated that a considerable fraction of exon divergent duplicates maintain the structural signature of splice form subfunctionalization. Furthermore, we find that paralogs with divergent exon structure demonstrate reduced breadth of expression in a variety of tissues when compared to paralogs with identical exon structures and singletons. Taken together, our results are consistent with subfunctionalization partitioning alternatively spliced isoforms among duplicate genes and as such highlight the relationship between gene duplication and alternative splicing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J Lambert
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
| | - Wayne O Cochran
- School of Engineering and Computer Science, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, Washington 98686, USA
| | - Brandon M Wilde
- College of Arts and Sciences, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, Washington 98686, USA
| | - Kyle G Olsen
- College of Arts and Sciences, Washington State University Vancouver, Vancouver, Washington 98686, USA
| | - Cynthia D Cooper
- School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA; School of Molecular Biosciences, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington 99164, USA
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16
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Islam Z, Hayashi N, Inoue H, Umezawa T, Kimura Y, Doi H, Romero MF, Hirose S, Kato A. Identification and lateral membrane localization of cyclin M3, likely to be involved in renal Mg2+ handling in seawater fish. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2014; 307:R525-37. [PMID: 24965791 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00032.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
The kidney of marine teleosts is the major site of Mg(2+) excretion and produces urine with a high Mg(2+) concentration. However, the transporters involved in Mg(2+) excretion are poorly understood. The cyclin M (Cnnm; also known as ancient conserved domain protein) family comprises membrane proteins homologous to the bacterial Mg(2+) and Co(2+) efflux protein, CorC. To understand the molecular mechanism of Mg(2+) homeostasis in marine teleosts, we analyzed the expression of the Cnnm family genes in the seawater (SW) pufferfish, torafugu (Takifugu rubripes), and the closely related euryhaline species, mefugu (Takifugu obscurus). Database mining and phylogenetic analysis indicated that the Takifugu genome contains six members of the Cnnm family: two orthologs of Cnnm1, one of Cnnm2, one of Cnnm3, and two of Cnnm4. RT-PCR analyses indicated that Cnnm2, Cnnm3, and Cnnm4a are expressed in the kidney, whereas other members are mainly expressed in the brain. Renal expression of Cnnm3 was upregulated in SW mefugu, whereas renal expression of Cnnm2 was upregulated in freshwater (FW) mefugu. No significant difference was observed in renal expression of Cnnm4a between SW and FW mefugu. In situ hybridization and immunohistochemical analyses of the SW mefugu kidney revealed that Cnnm3 is expressed in the proximal tubule, and its product localizes to the lateral membrane. When Cnnm3 was expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes, whole cellular Mg(2+) content and free intracellular Mg(2+) activity significantly decreased. These results suggest that Cnnm3 is involved in body fluid Mg(2+) homeostasis in marine teleosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zinia Islam
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Naoko Hayashi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Hana Inoue
- Department of Physiology, Tokyo Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Takahiro Umezawa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Yuuri Kimura
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Doi
- Shimonoseki Marine Science Museum, Shimonoseki, Japan
| | - Michael F Romero
- Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota; Nephrology and Hypertension, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota; and O'Brien Urology Research Center, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota
| | - Shigehisa Hirose
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Akira Kato
- Department of Biological Sciences, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Yokohama, Japan; Department of Physiology and Biomedical Engineering, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota;
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17
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Arjona FJ, de Baaij JHF, Schlingmann KP, Lameris ALL, van Wijk E, Flik G, Regele S, Korenke GC, Neophytou B, Rust S, Reintjes N, Konrad M, Bindels RJM, Hoenderop JGJ. CNNM2 mutations cause impaired brain development and seizures in patients with hypomagnesemia. PLoS Genet 2014; 10:e1004267. [PMID: 24699222 PMCID: PMC3974678 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1004267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/05/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Intellectual disability and seizures are frequently associated with hypomagnesemia and have an important genetic component. However, to find the genetic origin of intellectual disability and seizures often remains challenging because of considerable genetic heterogeneity and clinical variability. In this study, we have identified new mutations in CNNM2 in five families suffering from mental retardation, seizures, and hypomagnesemia. For the first time, a recessive mode of inheritance of CNNM2 mutations was observed. Importantly, patients with recessive CNNM2 mutations suffer from brain malformations and severe intellectual disability. Additionally, three patients with moderate mental disability were shown to carry de novo heterozygous missense mutations in the CNNM2 gene. To elucidate the physiological role of CNNM2 and explain the pathomechanisms of disease, we studied CNNM2 function combining in vitro activity assays and the zebrafish knockdown model system. Using stable Mg2+ isotopes, we demonstrated that CNNM2 increases cellular Mg2+ uptake in HEK293 cells and that this process occurs through regulation of the Mg2+-permeable cation channel TRPM7. In contrast, cells expressing mutated CNNM2 proteins did not show increased Mg2+ uptake. Knockdown of cnnm2 isoforms in zebrafish resulted in disturbed brain development including neurodevelopmental impairments such as increased embryonic spontaneous contractions and weak touch-evoked escape behaviour, and reduced body Mg content, indicative of impaired renal Mg2+ absorption. These phenotypes were rescued by injection of mammalian wild-type Cnnm2 cRNA, whereas mammalian mutant Cnnm2 cRNA did not improve the zebrafish knockdown phenotypes. We therefore concluded that CNNM2 is fundamental for brain development, neurological functioning and Mg2+ homeostasis. By establishing the loss-of-function zebrafish model for CNNM2 genetic disease, we provide a unique system for testing therapeutic drugs targeting CNNM2 and for monitoring their effects on the brain and kidney phenotype. Mental retardation affects 1–3% of the population and has a strong genetic etiology. Consequently, early identification of the genetic causes of mental retardation is of significant importance in the diagnosis of the disease, as predictor of the progress of the disease and for the determination of treatment. In this study, we identify mutations in the gene encoding for cyclin M2 (CNNM2) to be causative for mental retardation and seizures in patients with hypomagnesemia. Particularly, in patients with a recessive mode of inheritance, the intellectual disability caused by dysfunctional CNNM2 is dramatically severe and is accompanied by severely limited motor skills and brain malformations suggestive of impaired early brain development. Although hypomagnesemia has been associated to several neurological diseases, Mg2+ status is not regularly assessed in patients with seizures and mental disability. Our findings establish CNNM2 as an important protein for renal magnesium handling, brain development and neurological functioning, thus explaining the physiology of human disease caused by (dysfunctional) mutations in CNNM2. CNNM2 mutations should be taken into account in patients with seizures and mental disability, specifically in combination with hypomagnesemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco J Arjona
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Jeroen H F de Baaij
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Karl P Schlingmann
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - Anke L L Lameris
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Erwin van Wijk
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Gert Flik
- Department of Organismal Animal Physiology, Institute for Water and Wetland Research, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Sabrina Regele
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | | | - Birgit Neophytou
- Department of Neuropediatrics, St. Anna Children's Hospital, Medical University Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephan Rust
- Leibniz Institute of Arteriosclerosis Research, University of Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - Nadine Reintjes
- Institute of Human Genetics, University of Cologne, Cologne, Germany
| | - Martin Konrad
- Department of General Pediatrics, University Children's Hospital, Münster, Germany
| | - René J M Bindels
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Joost G J Hoenderop
- Department of Physiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud university medical center, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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