The degenerin region of the human bile acid-sensitive ion channel (BASIC) is involved in channel inhibition by calcium and activation by bile acids

Neurosteroids as positive and negative allosteric modulators of ligand-gated ion channels: P2X receptor perspective

Neurosteroids are steroids synthesized de novo in the brain from cholesterol in an independent manner from peripheral steroid sources. The term "neuroactive steroid" includes all steroids independent of their origin, and newly synthesized analogs of neurosteroids that modify neuronal activities. In vivo application of neuroactive steroids induces potent anxiolytic, antidepressant, anticonvulsant, sedative, analgesic and amnesic effects, mainly through interaction with the γ-aminobutyric acid type-A receptor (GABA_AR). However, neuroactive steroids also act as positive or negative allosteric regulators on several ligand-gated channels including N-methyl-d-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) and ATP-gated purinergic P2X receptors. Seven different P2X subunits (P2X1-7) can assemble to form homotrimeric or heterotrimeric ion channels permeable for monovalent cations and calcium. Among them, P2X2, P2X4, and P2X7 are the most abundant within the brain and can be regulated by neurosteroids. Transmembrane domains are necessary for neurosteroid binding, however, no generic motif of amino acids can accurately predict the neurosteroid binding site for any of the ligand-gated ion channels including P2X. Here, we will review what is currently known about the modulation of rat and human P2X by neuroactive steroids and the possible structural determinants underlying neurosteroid-induced potentiation and inhibition of the P2X2 and P2X4 receptors.

Two adjacent phosphorylation sites in the C-terminus of the channel's α-subunit have opposing effects on epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) activity

How phosphorylation of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) contributes to its regulation is incompletely understood. Previously, we demonstrated that in outside-out patches ENaC activation by serum- and glucocorticoid-inducible kinase isoform 1 (SGK1) was abolished by mutating a serine residue in a putative SGK1 consensus motif RXRXX(S/T) in the channel’s α-subunit (S621 in rat). Interestingly, this serine residue is followed by a highly conserved proline residue rather than by a hydrophobic amino acid thought to be required for a functional SGK1 consensus motif according to invitro data. This suggests that this serine residue is a potential phosphorylation site for the dual-specificity tyrosine phosphorylated and regulated kinase 2 (DYRK2), a prototypical proline-directed kinase. Its phosphorylation may prime a highly conserved preceding serine residue (S617 in rat) to be phosphorylated by glycogen synthase kinase 3 β (GSK3β). Therefore, we investigated the effect of DYRK2 on ENaC activity in outside-out patches of Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologously expressing rat ENaC. DYRK2 included in the pipette solution significantly increased ENaC activity. In contrast, GSK3β had an inhibitory effect. Replacing S621 in αENaC with alanine (S621A) abolished the effects of both kinases. A S617A mutation reduced the inhibitory effect of GKS3β but did not prevent ENaC activation by DYRK2. Our findings suggest that phosphorylation of S621 activates ENaC and primes S617 for subsequent phosphorylation by GSK3β resulting in channel inhibition. In proof-of-concept experiments, we demonstrated that DYRK2 can also stimulate ENaC currents in microdissected mouse distal nephron, whereas GSK3β inhibits the currents.

Bile acids and salt-sensitive hypertension: a role of the gut-liver axis

Salt-sensitivity of blood pressure (SSBP) affects 50% of the hypertensive and 25% of the normotensive populations. Importantly, SSBP is associated with increased risk for mortality in both populations independent of blood pressure. Despite its deleterious effects, the pathogenesis of SSBP is not fully understood. Emerging evidence suggests a novel role of bile acids in salt-sensitive hypertension and that they may play a crucial role in regulating inflammation and fluid volume homeostasis. Mechanistic evidence implicates alterations in the gut microbiome, the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC), the farnesoid X receptor, and the G protein-coupled bile acid receptor TGR5 in bile acid-mediated effects on cardiovascular function. The mechanistic interplay between excess dietary sodium-induced alterations in the gut microbiome and immune cell activation, bile acid signaling, and whether such interplay may contribute to the etiology of SSBP is still yet to be defined. The main goal of this review is to discuss the potential role of bile acids in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular disease with a focus on salt-sensitive hypertension.

Contributions of bile acids to gastrointestinal physiology as receptor agonists and modifiers of ion channels

Bile acids (BAs) are known to be important regulators of intestinal motility and epithelial fluid and electrolyte transport. Over the past two decades, significant advances in identifying and characterizing the receptors, transporters, and ion channels targeted by BAs have led to exciting new insights into the molecular mechanisms involved in these processes. Our appreciation of BAs, their receptors, and BA-modulated ion channels as potential targets for the development of new approaches to treat intestinal motility and transport disorders is increasing. In the current review, we aim to summarize recent advances in our knowledge of the different BA receptors and BA-modulated ion channels present in the gastrointestinal system. We discuss how they regulate motility and epithelial transport, their roles in pathogenesis, and their therapeutic potential in a range of gastrointestinal diseases.

A polycystin-2 protein with modified channel properties leads to an increased diameter of renal tubules and to renal cysts

Mutations in the PKD2 gene cause autosomal-dominant polycystic kidney disease but the physiological role of polycystin-2, the protein product of PKD2, remains elusive. Polycystin-2 belongs to the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of non-selective cation channels. To test the hypothesis that altered ion channel properties of polycystin-2 compromise its putative role in a control circuit controlling lumen formation of renal tubular structures, we generated a mouse model in which we exchanged the pore loop of polycystin-2 with that of the closely related cation channel polycystin-2L1 (encoded by PKD2L1), thereby creating the protein polycystin-2^poreL1. Functional characterization of this mutant channel in Xenopus laevis oocytes demonstrated that its electrophysiological properties differed from those of polycystin-2 and instead resembled the properties of polycystin-2L1, in particular regarding its permeability for Ca²⁺ ions. Homology modeling of the ion translocation pathway of polycystin-2^poreL1 argues for a wider pore in polycystin-2^poreL1 than in polycystin-2. In Pkd2^poreL1 knock-in mice in which the endogenous polycystin-2 protein was replaced by polycystin-2^poreL1 the diameter of collecting ducts was increased and collecting duct cysts developed in a strain-dependent fashion.

Summary: Replacement of the pore region of polycystin-2 with that of polycystin-2L1 results in wider renal tubules and polycystic kidney disease, thus demonstrating the essential function of its ion channel properties.

Bile acids inhibit human purinergic receptor P2X4 in a heterologous expression system

We recently demonstrated that bile acids, especially tauro-deoxycholic acid (t-DCA), modify the function of the acid-sensing ion channel ASIC1a and other members of the epithelial sodium channel (ENaC)/degenerin (DEG) ion channel family. Surprisingly, ASIC1 shares a high degree of structural similarity with the purinergic receptor P2X4, a nonselective cation channel transiently activated by ATP. P2X4 is abundantly expressed in the apical membrane of bile duct epithelial cells and is therefore exposed to bile acids under physiological conditions. Here, we hypothesize that P2X4 may also be modulated by bile acids and investigate whether t-DCA and other common bile acids affect human P2X4 heterologously expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. We find that application of either t-DCA or unconjugated deoxycholic acid (DCA; 250 µM) causes a strong reduction (∼70%) of ATP-activated P2X4-mediated whole-cell currents. The inhibitory effect of 250 µM tauro-chenodeoxycholic acid is less pronounced (∼30%), and 250 µM chenodeoxycholic acid, cholic acid, or tauro-cholic acid did not significantly alter P2X4-mediated currents. t-DCA inhibits P2X4 in a concentration-dependent manner by reducing the efficacy of ATP without significantly changing its affinity. Single-channel patch-clamp recordings provide evidence that t-DCA inhibits P2X4 by stabilizing the channel's closed state. Using site-directed mutagenesis, we identifiy several amino acid residues within the transmembrane domains of P2X4 that are critically involved in mediating the inhibitory effect of t-DCA on P2X4. Importantly, a W46A mutation converts the inhibitory effect of t-DCA into a stimulatory effect. We conclude that t-DCA directly interacts with P2X4 and decreases ATP-activated P2X4 currents by stabilizing the closed conformation of the channel.

Comparative electrophysiological analysis of the bile acid-sensitive ion channel (BASIC) from different species suggests similar physiological functions

Despite the identification of cholangiocytes in the liver and unipolar brush cells in the cerebellum as sites of expression, the physiological function of the bile acid-sensitive ion channel (BASIC) remains unknown. Rat BASIC (rBASIC) and mouse BASIC (mBASIC) share 97% of their amino acid sequence but show strikingly different biophysical properties. rBASIC is inactive at rest while mBASIC is constitutively active, when expressed in Xenopus oocytes. This conundrum rendered the identification of the physiological function even more difficult. In this study, we investigated the electrophysiological and pharmacological properties of BASIC from rat, mouse, and human in Hek293 cells using the patch clamp technique. Surprisingly, in Hek293 cells, rBASIC and mBASIC showed almost completely identical properties. Both are blocked by extracellular Ca²⁺ and thus are inactive at rest; both are selective for Na⁺, show similar affinities for extracellular Ca²⁺, were inhibited by diminazene, and activated by various bile acids. This is in contrast to previous results derived from Xenopus oocytes as expression system and suggests that the cell type is important for shaping the biophysical properties of BASIC. Furthermore, we compared hBASIC with rBASIC and mBASIC and observed similar properties between these channels with one exception: the bile acid sensitivity profile of hBASIC is different from rBASIC and mBASIC; hBASIC is more sensitive to bile acids which are abundant in human bile but not in rodent bile. Taken together, these results suggest similar physiological roles for BASIC in different species.

The degenerin region of the human bile acid-sensitive ion channel (BASIC) is involved in channel inhibition by calcium and activation by bile acids

The bile acid-sensitive ion channel (BASIC) is a member of the ENaC/degenerin family of ion channels. It is activated by bile acids and inhibited by extracellular Ca²⁺. The aim of this study was to explore the molecular mechanisms mediating these effects. The modulation of BASIC function by extracellular Ca²⁺ and tauro-deoxycholic acid (t-DCA) was studied in Xenopus laevis oocytes heterologously expressing human BASIC using the two-electrode voltage-clamp and outside-out patch-clamp techniques. Substitution of aspartate D444 to alanine or cysteine in the degenerin region of BASIC, a region known to be critically involved in channel gating, resulted in a substantial reduction of BASIC Ca²⁺ sensitivity. Moreover, mutating D444 or the neighboring alanine (A443) to cysteine significantly reduced the t-DCA-mediated BASIC stimulation. A combined molecular docking/simulation approach demonstrated that t-DCA may temporarily form hydrogen bonds with several amino acid residues including D444 in the outer vestibule of the BASIC pore or in the inter-subunit space. By these interactions, t-DCA may stabilize the open state of the channel. Indeed, single-channel recordings provided evidence that t-DCA activates BASIC by stabilizing the open state of the channel, whereas extracellular Ca²⁺ inhibits BASIC by stabilizing its closed state. In conclusion, our results highlight the potential role of the degenerin region as a critical regulatory site involved in the functional interaction of Ca²⁺ and t-DCA with BASIC.