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Kamidi CM, Saarman NP, Dion K, Mireji PO, Ouma C, Murilla G, Aksoy S, Schnaufer A, Caccone A. Multiple evolutionary origins of Trypanosoma evansi in Kenya. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2017; 11:e0005895. [PMID: 28880965 PMCID: PMC5605091 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0005895] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2017] [Revised: 09/19/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi is the parasite causing surra, a form of trypanosomiasis in camels and other livestock, and a serious economic burden in Kenya and many other parts of the world. Trypanosoma evansi transmission can be sustained mechanically by tabanid and Stomoxys biting flies, whereas the closely related African trypanosomes T. brucei brucei and T. b. rhodesiense require cyclical development in tsetse flies (genus Glossina) for transmission. In this study, we investigated the evolutionary origins of T. evansi. We used 15 polymorphic microsatellites to quantify levels and patterns of genetic diversity among 41 T. evansi isolates and 66 isolates of T. b. brucei (n = 51) and T. b. rhodesiense (n = 15), including many from Kenya, a region where T. evansi may have evolved from T. brucei. We found that T. evansi strains belong to at least two distinct T. brucei genetic units and contain genetic diversity that is similar to that in T. brucei strains. Results indicated that the 41 T. evansi isolates originated from multiple T. brucei strains from different genetic backgrounds, implying independent origins of T. evansi from T. brucei strains. This surprising finding further suggested that the acquisition of the ability of T. evansi to be transmitted mechanically, and thus the ability to escape the obligate link with the African tsetse fly vector, has occurred repeatedly. These findings, if confirmed, have epidemiological implications, as T. brucei strains from different genetic backgrounds can become either causative agents of a dangerous, cosmopolitan livestock disease or of a lethal human disease, like for T. b. rhodesiense.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine M. Kamidi
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Norah P. Saarman
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Kirstin Dion
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Paul O. Mireji
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- Centre for Geographic Medicine Research Coast, Kenya Medical Research Institute, Kilifi, Kenya
| | - Collins Ouma
- Department of Biomedical Sciences and Technology, School of Public Health and Community Development, Maseno University, Maseno, Kenya
| | - Grace Murilla
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Serap Aksoy
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
| | - Achim Schnaufer
- Centre for Immunity, Infection & Evolution, and Institute of Immunology & Infection Research, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland, United Kingdom
| | - Adalgisa Caccone
- Yale School of Public Health, Department of Epidemiology of Microbial Diseases, New Haven, CT, United States of America
- Department of Ecology & Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT, United States of America
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Van Vinh Chau N, Buu Chau L, Desquesnes M, Herder S, Phu Huong Lan N, Campbell JI, Van Cuong N, Yimming B, Chalermwong P, Jittapalapong S, Ramon Franco J, Tri Tue N, Rabaa MA, Carrique-Mas J, Pham Thi Thanh T, Tran Vu Thieu N, Berto A, Thi Hoa N, Van Minh Hoang N, Canh Tu N, Khac Chuyen N, Wills B, Tinh Hien T, Thwaites GE, Yacoub S, Baker S. A Clinical and Epidemiological Investigation of the First Reported Human Infection With the Zoonotic Parasite Trypanosoma evansi in Southeast Asia. Clin Infect Dis 2016; 62:1002-1008. [PMID: 26908809 PMCID: PMC4803109 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciw052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trypanosomais a genus of unicellular parasitic flagellate protozoa.Trypanosoma bruceispecies and Trypanosoma cruziare the major agents of human trypanosomiasis; other Trypanosomaspecies can cause human disease, but are rare. In March 2015, a 38-year-old woman presented to a healthcare facility in southern Vietnam with fever, headache, and arthralgia. Microscopic examination of blood revealed infection with Trypanosoma METHODS Microscopic observation, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification of blood samples, and serological testing were performed to identify the infecting species. The patient's blood was screened for the trypanocidal protein apolipoprotein L1 (APOL1), and a field investigation was performed to identify the zoonotic source. RESULTS PCR amplification and serological testing identified the infecting species as Trypanosoma evansi.Despite relapsing 6 weeks after completing amphotericin B therapy, the patient made a complete recovery after 5 weeks of suramin. The patient was found to have 2 wild-type APOL1 alleles and a normal serum APOL1 concentration. After responsive animal sampling in the presumed location of exposure, cattle and/or buffalo were determined to be the most likely source of the infection, with 14 of 30 (47%) animal blood samples testing PCR positive forT. evansi. CONCLUSIONS We report the first laboratory-confirmed case ofT. evansiin a previously healthy individual without APOL1 deficiency, potentially contracted via a wound while butchering raw beef, and successfully treated with suramin. A linked epidemiological investigation revealed widespread and previously unidentified burden ofT. evansiin local cattle, highlighting the need for surveillance of this infection in animals and the possibility of further human cases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Le Buu Chau
- Hospital for Tropical Diseases, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Marc Desquesnes
- Centre de Coopération Internationale en Recherche Agronomique pour le Développement (CIRAD), UMR Intertryp, Montpellier, France
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Stephane Herder
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
- UMR 177 Intertryp IRD/CIRAD, Montpellier, France
| | | | - James I Campbell
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Nguyen Van Cuong
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Benjarat Yimming
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Piangjai Chalermwong
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Sathaporn Jittapalapong
- Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Jose Ramon Franco
- Department of Control of Neglected Tropical Diseases, World Health Organization, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Ngo Tri Tue
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Maia A Rabaa
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Juan Carrique-Mas
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Tam Pham Thi Thanh
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Nga Tran Vu Thieu
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | - Alessandra Berto
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Ngo Thi Hoa
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Nguyen Van Minh Hoang
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
| | | | | | - Bridget Wills
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Tran Tinh Hien
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Guy E Thwaites
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
| | - Sophie Yacoub
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Department of Medicine, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Campus
| | - Stephen Baker
- Oxford University Clinical Research Unit, Wellcome Trust Major Overseas Programme, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
- Centre for Tropical Medicine and Global Health, Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, Oxford University, United Kingdom
- Department of Pathogen and Molecular Biology, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, United Kingdom
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Desquesnes M, Holzmuller P, Lai DH, Dargantes A, Lun ZR, Jittaplapong S. Trypanosoma evansi and surra: a review and perspectives on origin, history, distribution, taxonomy, morphology, hosts, and pathogenic effects. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2013; 2013:194176. [PMID: 24024184 PMCID: PMC3760267 DOI: 10.1155/2013/194176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2013] [Accepted: 07/05/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi, the agent of "surra," is a salivarian trypanosome, originating from Africa. It is thought to derive from Trypanosoma brucei by deletion of the maxicircle kinetoplastic DNA (genetic material required for cyclical development in tsetse flies). It is mostly mechanically transmitted by tabanids and stomoxes, initially to camels, in sub-Saharan area. The disease spread from North Africa towards the Middle East, Turkey, India, up to 53° North in Russia, across all South-East Asia, down to Indonesia and the Philippines, and it was also introduced by the conquistadores into Latin America. It can affect a very large range of domestic and wild hosts including camelids, equines, cattle, buffaloes, sheep, goats, pigs, dogs and other carnivores, deer, gazelles, and elephants. It found a new large range of wild and domestic hosts in Latin America, including reservoirs (capybaras) and biological vectors (vampire bats). Surra is a major disease in camels, equines, and dogs, in which it can often be fatal in the absence of treatment, and exhibits nonspecific clinical signs (anaemia, loss of weight, abortion, and death), which are variable from one host and one place to another; however, its immunosuppressive effects interfering with intercurrent diseases or vaccination campaigns might be its most significant and questionable aspect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marc Desquesnes
- Cirad-Bios, UMR-InterTryp, Montpellier 34000, France
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
| | | | - De-Hua Lai
- Center for Parasitic Organisms, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | | | - Zhao-Rong Lun
- Center for Parasitic Organisms, School of Life Sciences, Sun Yat-Sen University, Guangzhou 510275, China
| | - Sathaporn Jittaplapong
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Kasetsart University, Chatuchak, Bangkok 10900, Thailand
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McInnes LM, Dargantes AP, Ryan UM, Reid SA. Microsatellite typing and population structuring of Trypanosoma evansi in Mindanao, Philippines. Vet Parasitol 2011; 187:129-39. [PMID: 22230026 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetpar.2011.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2011] [Revised: 12/03/2011] [Accepted: 12/13/2011] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma evansi, a blood-borne protozoan parasite with an extensive geographical range is the causative agent of the livestock disease known as surra. A total of 140 out of 179 T. evansi isolates collected between 2006 and 2007 from 44 villages (comprising of 16 reported surra outbreaks) in 3 provinces (Agusan del Sur (ADS), Surigao del Sur (SDS) and Agusan del Norte (ADN)) in Mindanao, Philippines were each successfully genotyped using a suite of 7 polymorphic microsatellites. The study identified 16 multi locus genotypes (MLG) within the T. evansi isolates and evidence of the spread of surra outbreaks from one village to another, most likely due to the movement of infected animals. Genotyping provided evidence of population sub-structuring with 3 populations (I, II and III (only 1 isolate)) identified. The most abundant population was II, which was the predominant population in ADS and SDS (p=0.022). In addition, buffalo mortality was statistically higher in outbreak areas associated with isolates from population I (13.6%) than with isolates from population II (6.9%) (p=0.047). The present study has highlighted the utility of microsatellite loci to improve understanding of the epidemiology of T. evansi and in tracking surra outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- L M McInnes
- Division of Health Sciences, School of Veterinary and Biomedical Sciences, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Perth, WA 6150, Australia.
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Salim B, de Meeûs T, Bakheit MA, Kamau J, Nakamura I, Sugimoto C. Population genetics of Trypanosoma evansi from camel in the Sudan. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2011; 5:e1196. [PMID: 21666799 PMCID: PMC3110163 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0001196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/02/2010] [Accepted: 04/20/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Genetic variation of microsatellite loci is a widely used method for the analysis of population genetic structure of microorganisms. We have investigated genetic variation at 15 microsatellite loci of T. evansi isolated from camels in Sudan and Kenya to evaluate the genetic information partitioned within and between individuals and between sites. We detected a strong signal of isolation by distance across the area sampled. The results also indicate that either, and as expected, T. evansi is purely clonal and structured in small units at very local scales and that there are numerous allelic dropouts in the data, or that this species often sexually recombines without the need of the “normal” definitive host, the tsetse fly or as the recurrent immigration from sexually recombined T. brucei brucei. Though the first hypothesis is the most likely, discriminating between these two incompatible hypotheses will require further studies at much localized scales. Trypanosomiasis due to Trypanosoma evansi is a widely distributed disease of livestock, affecting especially camelids and equines and is transmitted by biting flies. The disease is of great concern to many developing countries such as Sudan, where its large camel population estimated at over 4.6 million heads is at risk. It is generally believed that T. evansi has evolved when camels infected with T. brucei moved to tsetse-free areas, but only a few studies have been carried out to elucidate the genetic make-up of T. evansi. Therefore, in the current study, 15 microsatellite markers from non-coding loci on 38 isolates of T. evansi originating from different locations in Sudan were analyzed. Three reference strains from Sudan and Kenya were additionally analyzed and compared to the recent isolates. The results of this study revealed a highly significant isolation by distance pattern with rather small neighborhood sizes. It also suggested that T. evansi is either purely clonal with numerous problems of allelic dropouts or that it often sexually recombines without the need of the definitive host, the tsetse fly, or as the result of recurrent immigration from sexually recombined T. brucei brucei mutants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bashir Salim
- Department of Collaboration and Education, Research Center for Zoonosis Control, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.
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Njiru ZK, Gitonga PK, Ndungu K. The typing of Trypanosoma evansi isolates using mobile genetic element (MGE) PCR. Parasitol Res 2011; 108:1583-7. [PMID: 21287202 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-010-2246-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The mobile genetic element PCR (MGE-PCR) is a simple and sensitive technique that can be used to detect genetic variability in Trypanosoma brucei ssp. To investigate the reliability of MGE-PCR in genotyping Trypanosoma evansi, stocks that were isolated directly from camels and after their respective passage in mice were analyzed. Construction of a dendrogram using the MGE-PCR banding profiles revealed a clear distinction between T. evansi and T. brucei, as well as discriminating the T. evansi strains (T. evansi with minicircle types B and A). A minor host-dependent clustering shows a genetic difference of <15%. Changes in the banding profiles were observed after serial passage of T. evansi type B in mice, while those of T. evansi type A were identical. It is apparent that significant random insertion mobile element positional variation occurs when T. evansi isolates are introduced into a new host, a factor that needs to be considered when MGE-PCR is used to determine genetic variation in T. evansi isolates that have different host origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z K Njiru
- School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Queensland, Inner Ring Road, Gatton, 4343, Australia.
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Njiru ZK, Ouma JO, Enyaru JC, Dargantes AP. Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) test for detection of Trypanosoma evansi strain B. Exp Parasitol 2010; 125:196-201. [PMID: 20109454 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2010.01.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2009] [Revised: 01/13/2010] [Accepted: 01/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Camel Trypanosomiasis (Surra) is mainly caused by Trypanosoma evansi strains that express variable surface glycoprotein (VSG) RoTat 1.2. However, in Kenya a second causative strain that does not express RoTat 1.2 VSG (T. evansi type B) has been identified. The prevalence of T. evansi type B largely remains unknown due to inadequate diagnostic assay. This work reports the development of a sensitive and specific diagnostic assay capable of detecting T. evansi type B based on the strategy of Loop-mediated Isothermal Amplification (LAMP) of DNA. The test is rapid and amplification is achieved within 20-25min at 63 degrees C using a real time PCR machine. Restriction enzyme AluI digestion of the amplicon gave the predicted 83bp and 89bp sized bands and the LAMP product melt curves showed consistent melting temperature (T(m)) of approximately 89 degrees C. The assay analytical sensitivity is approximately 0.1tryps/ml while that of classical PCR test targeting the same gene is approximately 10tryps/ml. There was a 100% agreement in detection of the LAMP amplification product in real time, gel electrophoresis, on addition of SYBR Green I, and when using chromatographic Lateral Flow Dipstick (LFD) format. The use of the LAMP test revealed nine more T. evansi type B DNA samples that were not initially detected through PCR. The robustness and higher sensitivity of the T. evansi type B LAMP assay coupled with the visual detection of the amplification product indicate that the technique has strong potential as a point-of-use test in surra endemic areas.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zablon K Njiru
- Division of Health Sciences, School of Nursing and Midwifery, Murdoch University, Education Drive, Mandurah, WA, Australia.
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