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Lima DA, Gonçalves LO, Reis-Cunha JL, Guimarães PAS, Ruiz JC, Liarte DB, Murta SMF. Transcriptomic analysis of benznidazole-resistant and susceptible Trypanosoma cruzi populations. Parasit Vectors 2023; 16:167. [PMID: 37217925 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-023-05775-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2022] [Accepted: 04/16/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chagas disease (CD), caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi, is a serious public health concern in Latin America. Nifurtimox and benznidazole (BZ), the only two drugs currently approved for the treatment of CD, have very low efficacies in the chronic phase of the disease and several toxic side effects. Trypanosoma cruzi strains that are naturally resistant to both drugs have been reported. We performed a comparative transcriptomic analysis of wild-type and BZ-resistant T. cruzi populations using high-throughput RNA sequencing to elucidate the metabolic pathways related to clinical drug resistance and identify promising molecular targets for the development of new drugs for treating CD. METHODS All complementary DNA (cDNA) libraries were constructed from the epimastigote forms of each line, sequenced and analysed using the Prinseq and Trimmomatic tools for the quality analysis, STAR as the aligner for mapping the reads against the reference genome (T. cruzi Dm28c-2018), the Bioconductor package EdgeR for statistical analysis of differential expression and the Python-based library GOATools for the functional enrichment analysis. RESULTS The analytical pipeline with an adjusted P-value of < 0.05 and fold-change > 1.5 identified 1819 transcripts that were differentially expressed (DE) between wild-type and BZ-resistant T. cruzi populations. Of these, 1522 (83.7%) presented functional annotations and 297 (16.2%) were assigned as hypothetical proteins. In total, 1067 transcripts were upregulated and 752 were downregulated in the BZ-resistant T. cruzi population. Functional enrichment analysis of the DE transcripts identified 10 and 111 functional categories enriched for the up- and downregulated transcripts, respectively. Through functional analysis we identified several biological processes potentially associated with the BZ-resistant phenotype: cellular amino acid metabolic processes, translation, proteolysis, protein phosphorylation, RNA modification, DNA repair, generation of precursor metabolites and energy, oxidation-reduction processes, protein folding, purine nucleotide metabolic processes and lipid biosynthetic processes. CONCLUSIONS The transcriptomic profile of T. cruzi revealed a robust set of genes from different metabolic pathways associated with the BZ-resistant phenotype, proving that T. cruzi resistance mechanisms are multifactorial and complex. Biological processes associated with parasite drug resistance include antioxidant defenses and RNA processing. The identified transcripts, such as ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and iron superoxide dismutase (Fe-SOD), provide important information on the resistant phenotype. These DE transcripts can be further evaluated as molecular targets for new drugs against CD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davi Alvarenga Lima
- Genômica Funcional de Parasitos, Instituto René Rachou (IRR/Fiocruz Minas), Av. Augusto de Lima 1715, Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP 30190-002, Brazil
| | - Leilane Oliveira Gonçalves
- Informática de Biossistemas, Genômica e Bioengenharia, Instituto René Rachou (IRR/Fiocruz Minas), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Paul Anderson Souza Guimarães
- Informática de Biossistemas, Genômica e Bioengenharia, Instituto René Rachou (IRR/Fiocruz Minas), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Jeronimo Conceição Ruiz
- Informática de Biossistemas, Genômica e Bioengenharia, Instituto René Rachou (IRR/Fiocruz Minas), Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | | | - Silvane Maria Fonseca Murta
- Genômica Funcional de Parasitos, Instituto René Rachou (IRR/Fiocruz Minas), Av. Augusto de Lima 1715, Belo Horizonte, MG, CEP 30190-002, Brazil.
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Ali V, Behera S, Nawaz A, Equbal A, Pandey K. Unique thiol metabolism in trypanosomatids: Redox homeostasis and drug resistance. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2022; 117:75-155. [PMID: 35878950 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2022.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosomatids are mainly responsible for heterogeneous parasitic diseases: Leishmaniasis, Sleeping sickness, and Chagas disease and control of these diseases implicates serious challenges due to the emergence of drug resistance. Redox-active biomolecules are the endogenous substances in organisms, which play important role in the regulation of redox homeostasis. The redox-active substances like glutathione, trypanothione, cysteine, cysteine persulfides, etc., and other inorganic intermediates (hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide) are very useful as defence mechanism. In the present review, the suitability of trypanothione and other essential thiol molecules of trypanosomatids as drug targets are described in Leishmania and Trypanosoma. We have explored the role of tryparedoxin, tryparedoxin peroxidase, ascorbate peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and glutaredoxins in the anti-oxidant mechanism and drug resistance. Up-regulation of some proteins in trypanothione metabolism helps the parasites in survival against drug pressure (sodium stibogluconate, Amphotericin B, etc.) and oxidative stress. These molecules accept electrons from the reduced trypanothione and donate their electrons to other proteins, and these proteins reduce toxic molecules, neutralize reactive oxygen, or nitrogen species; and help parasites to cope with oxidative stress. Thus, a better understanding of the role of these molecules in drug resistance and redox homeostasis will help to target metabolic pathway proteins to combat Leishmaniasis and trypanosomiases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vahab Ali
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India.
| | - Sachidananda Behera
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Afreen Nawaz
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India
| | - Asif Equbal
- Laboratory of Molecular Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Department of Biochemistry, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India; Department of Botany, Araria College, Purnea University, Purnia, Bihar, India
| | - Krishna Pandey
- Department of Clinical Medicine, ICMR-Rajendra Memorial Research Institute of Medical Sciences (RMRIMS), Patna, Bihar, India
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Santi AMM, Murta/ SMF. Antioxidant defence system as a rational target for Chagas disease and Leishmaniasis chemotherapy. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2022; 117:e210401. [PMID: 35239945 PMCID: PMC8896756 DOI: 10.1590/0074-02760210401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Chagas disease and leishmaniasis are neglected tropical diseases caused by the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp., respectively. They are among the most important parasitic diseases, affecting millions of people worldwide, being a considerable global challenge. However, there is no human vaccine available against T. cruzi and Leishmania infections, and their control is based mainly on chemotherapy. Treatments for Chagas disease and leishmaniasis have multiple limitations, mainly due to the high toxicity of the available drugs, long-term treatment protocols, and the occurrence of drug-resistant parasite strains. In the case of Chagas disease, there is still the problem of low cure rates in the chronic stage of the disease. Therefore, new therapeutic agents and novel targets for drug development are urgently needed. Antioxidant defence in Trypanosomatidae is a potential target for chemotherapy because the organisms present a unique mechanism for trypanothione-dependent detoxification of peroxides, which differs from that found in vertebrates. Cellular thiol redox homeostasis is maintained by the biosynthesis and reduction of trypanothione, involving different enzymes that act in concert. This study provides an overview of the antioxidant defence focusing on iron superoxide dismutase A, tryparedoxin peroxidase, and ascorbate peroxidase and how the enzymes play an important role in the defence against oxidative stress and their involvement in drug resistance mechanisms in T. cruzi and Leishmania spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Maria Murta Santi
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto René Rachou, Grupo de Genômica Funcional de Parasitos, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
| | - Silvane Maria Fonseca Murta/
- Fundação Oswaldo Cruz-Fiocruz, Instituto René Rachou, Grupo de Genômica Funcional de Parasitos, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brasil
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Intrinsic and Chemotherapeutic Stressors Modulate ABCC-Like Transport in Trypanosoma cruzi. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26123510. [PMID: 34207619 PMCID: PMC8227891 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26123510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi is the etiologic agent for Chagas disease, which affects 6-7 million people worldwide. The biological diversity of the parasite reflects on inefficiency of benznidazole, which is a first choice chemotherapy, on chronic patients. ABC transporters that extrude xenobiotics, metabolites, and mediators are overexpressed in resistant cells and contribute to chemotherapy failure. An ABCC-like transport was identified in the Y strain and extrudes thiol-conjugated compounds. As thiols represent a line of defense towards reactive species, we aimed to verify whether ABCC-like transport could participate in the regulation of responses to stressor stimuli. In order to achieve this, ABCC-like activity was measured by flow cytometry using fluorescent substrates. The present study reveals the participation of glutathione and ceramides on ABCC-like transport, which are both implicated in stress. Hemin modulated the ABCC-like efflux which suggests that this protein might be involved in cellular detoxification. Additionally, all strains evaluated exhibited ABCC-like activity, while no ABCB1-like activity was detected. Results suggest that ABCC-like efflux is not associated with natural resistance to benznidazole, since sensitive strains showed higher activity than the resistant ones. Although benznidazole is not a direct substrate, ABCC-like efflux increased after prolonged drug exposure and this indicates that the ABCC-like efflux mediated protection against cell stress depends on the glutathione biosynthesis pathway.
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Maldonado E, Rojas DA, Morales S, Miralles V, Solari A. Dual and Opposite Roles of Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) in Chagas Disease: Beneficial on the Pathogen and Harmful on the Host. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:8867701. [PMID: 33376582 PMCID: PMC7746463 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8867701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Revised: 09/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/25/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease, which affects an estimate of 6-7 million people worldwide. Chagas disease is caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, which is a eukaryotic flagellate unicellular organism. At the primary infection sites, these parasites are phagocytized by macrophages, which produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) in response to the infection with T. cruzi. The ROS produce damage to the host tissues; however, macrophage-produced ROS is also used as a signal for T. cruzi proliferation. At the later stages of infection, mitochondrial ROS is produced by the infected cardiomyocytes that contribute to the oxidative damage, which persists at the chronic stage of the disease. The oxidative damage leads to a functional impairment of the heart. In this review article, we will discuss the mechanisms by which T. cruzi is able to deal with the oxidative stress and how this helps the parasite growth at the acute phase of infection and how the oxidative stress affects the cardiomyopathy at the chronic stage of the Chagas disease. We will describe the mechanisms used by the parasite to deal with ROS and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) through the trypanothione and the mechanisms used to repair the damaged DNA. Also, a description of the events produced by ROS at the acute and chronic stages of the disease is presented. Lastly, we discuss the benefits of ROS for T. cruzi growth and proliferation and the possible mechanisms involved in this phenomenon. Hypothesis is put forward to explain the molecular mechanisms by which ROS triggers parasite growth and proliferation and how ROS is able to produce a long persisting damage on cardiomyocytes even in the absence of the parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edio Maldonado
- Programa Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Diego A. Rojas
- Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Sebastian Morales
- Programa Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Vicente Miralles
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
| | - Aldo Solari
- Programa Biología Celular y Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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6
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Patterson S, Fairlamb AH. Current and Future Prospects of Nitro-compounds as Drugs for Trypanosomiasis and Leishmaniasis. Curr Med Chem 2019; 26:4454-4475. [PMID: 29701144 DOI: 10.2174/0929867325666180426164352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Interest in nitroheterocyclic drugs for the treatment of infectious diseases has undergone a resurgence in recent years. Here we review the current status of monocyclic and bicyclic nitroheterocyclic compounds as existing or potential new treatments for visceral leishmaniasis, Chagas' disease and human African trypanosomiasis. Both monocyclic (nifurtimox, benznidazole and fexinidazole) and bicyclic (pretomanid (PA-824) and delamanid (OPC-67683)) nitro-compounds are prodrugs, requiring enzymatic activation to exert their parasite toxicity. Current understanding of the nitroreductases involved in activation and possible mechanisms by which parasites develop resistance is discussed along with a description of the pharmacokinetic / pharmacodynamic behaviour and chemical structure-activity relationships of drugs and experimental compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen Patterson
- Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
| | - Alan H Fairlamb
- Division of Biological Chemistry and Drug Discovery, School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, Dundee, United Kingdom
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7
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Girard MC, Acevedo GR, López L, Ossowski MS, Piñeyro MD, Grosso JP, Fernandez M, Hernández Vasquez Y, Robello C, Gómez KA. Evaluation of the immune response against Trypanosoma cruzi cytosolic tryparedoxin peroxidase in human natural infection. Immunology 2018; 155:367-378. [PMID: 29972690 DOI: 10.1111/imm.12979] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/21/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the aetiological agent of Chagas disease, has a highly efficient detoxification system to deal with the oxidative burst imposed by its host. One of the antioxidant enzymes involved is the cytosolic tryparedoxin peroxidase (c-TXNPx), which catalyses the reduction to hydrogen peroxide, small-chain organic hydroperoxides and peroxynitrite. This enzyme is present in all parasite stages, and its overexpression renders parasites more resistant to the oxidative defences of macrophages, favouring parasite survival. This work addressed the study of the specific humoral and cellular immune response triggered by c-TXNPx in human natural infection. Thus, sera and peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) were collected from chronically infected asymptomatic and cardiac patients, and non-infected individuals. Results showed that levels of IgG antibodies against c-TXNPx were low in sera from individuals across all groups. B-cell epitope prediction limited immunogenicity to a few, small regions on the c-TXNPx sequence. At a cellular level, PBMC from asymptomatic and cardiac patients proliferated and secreted interferon-γ after c-TXNPx stimulation, compared with mock control. However, only proliferation was higher in asymptomatic patients compared with cardiac and non-infected individuals. Furthermore, asymptomatic patients showed an enhanced frequency of CD19+ CD69+ cells upon exposure to c-TXNPx. Overall, our results show that c-TXNPx fails to induce a strong immune response in natural infection, being measurable only in those patients without any clinical symptoms. The low impact of c-TXNPx in the human immune response could be strategic for parasite survival, as it keeps this crucial antioxidant enzyme activity safe from the mechanisms of adaptive immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Magalí C Girard
- Laboratorio de Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular (INGEBI-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gonzalo R Acevedo
- Laboratorio de Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular (INGEBI-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucía López
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Micaela S Ossowski
- Laboratorio de Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular (INGEBI-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María D Piñeyro
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Juan P Grosso
- Laboratorio de Insectos Sociales, IFIBYNE-CONICET, Departamento de Biodiversidad y Biología Experimental, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas y Naturales, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Marisa Fernandez
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Doctor Mario Fatala Chabén", Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Carlos Robello
- Unidad de Biología Molecular, Institut Pasteur Montevideo, Montevideo, Uruguay.,Departamento de Bioquímica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Karina A Gómez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología de las Infecciones por Tripanosomátidos, Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular (INGEBI-CONICET), Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Franco J, Scarone L, Comini MA. Drugs and Drug Resistance in African and American Trypanosomiasis. ANNUAL REPORTS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.armc.2018.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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9
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González L, García-Huertas P, Triana-Chávez O, García GA, Murta SMF, Mejía-Jaramillo AM. Aldo-keto reductase and alcohol dehydrogenase contribute to benznidazole natural resistance in Trypanosoma cruzi. Mol Microbiol 2017; 106:704-718. [PMID: 28884498 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13830] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 09/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The improvement of Chagas disease treatment is focused not only on the development of new drugs but also in understanding mechanisms of action and resistance to drugs conventionally used. Thus, some strategies aim to detect specific changes in proteins between sensitive and resistant parasites and to evaluate the role played in these processes by functional genomics. In this work, we used a natural Trypanosoma cruzi population resistant to benznidazole, which has clones with different susceptibilities to this drug without alterations in the NTR I gene. Using 2DE-gel electrophoresis, the aldo-keto reductase and the alcohol dehydrogenase proteins were found up regulated in the natural resistant clone and therefore their possible role in the resistance to benznidazole and glyoxal was investigated. Both genes were overexpressed in a drug sensitive T. cruzi clone and the biological changes in response to these compounds were evaluated. The results showed that the overexpression of these proteins enhances resistance to benznidazole and glyoxal in T. cruzi. Moreover, a decrease in mitochondrial and cell membrane damage was observed, accompanied by a drop in the intracellular concentration of reactive oxygen species after treatment. Our results suggest that these proteins are involved in the mechanism of action of benznidazole.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura González
- Grupo Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas-BCEI, Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Paola García-Huertas
- Grupo Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas-BCEI, Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Omar Triana-Chávez
- Grupo Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas-BCEI, Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Medellín, Colombia
| | - Gabriela Andrea García
- Instituto Nacional de Parasitología "Dr. Mario Fatala Chaben"- ANLIS "Dr. Carlos G. Malbrán", Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | | | - Ana M Mejía-Jaramillo
- Grupo Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas-BCEI, Universidad de Antioquia, UdeA, Medellín, Colombia
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Heme A synthesis and CcO activity are essential for Trypanosoma cruzi infectivity and replication. Biochem J 2017; 474:2315-2332. [DOI: 10.1042/bcj20170084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 06/01/2017] [Accepted: 06/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the causative agent of Chagas disease, presents a complex life cycle and adapts its metabolism to nutrients’ availability. Although T. cruzi is an aerobic organism, it does not produce heme. This cofactor is acquired from the host and is distributed and inserted into different heme-proteins such as respiratory complexes in the parasite's mitochondrion. It has been proposed that T. cruzi's energy metabolism relies on a branched respiratory chain with a cytochrome c oxidase-type aa3 (CcO) as the main terminal oxidase. Heme A, the cofactor for all eukaryotic CcO, is synthesized via two sequential enzymatic reactions catalyzed by heme O synthase (HOS) and heme A synthase (HAS). Previously, TcCox10 and TcCox15 (Trypanosoma cruzi Cox10 and Cox15 proteins) were identified in T. cruzi. They presented HOS and HAS activity, respectively, when they were expressed in yeast. Here, we present the first characterization of TcCox15 in T. cruzi, confirming its role as HAS. It was differentially detected in the different T. cruzi stages, being more abundant in the replicative forms. This regulation could reflect the necessity of more heme A synthesis, and therefore more CcO activity at the replicative stages. Overexpression of a non-functional mutant caused a reduction in heme A content. Moreover, our results clearly showed that this hindrance in the heme A synthesis provoked a reduction on CcO activity and, in consequence, an impairment on T. cruzi survival, proliferation and infectivity. This evidence supports that T. cruzi depends on the respiratory chain activity along its life cycle, being CcO an essential terminal oxidase.
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Differential expression on mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase (mTcTXNPx) in Trypanosoma cruzi after ferrocenyl diamine hydrochlorides treatments. Braz J Infect Dis 2017; 21:125-132. [PMID: 27918890 PMCID: PMC9427605 DOI: 10.1016/j.bjid.2016.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance to benznidazole in certain strains of Trypanosoma cruzi may be caused by the increased production of enzymes that act on the oxidative metabolism, such as mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase which catalyses the reduction of peroxides. This work presents cytotoxicity assays performed with ferrocenyl diamine hydrochlorides in six different strains of T. cruzi epimastigote forms (Y, Bolivia, SI1, SI8, QMII, and SIGR3). The last four strains have been recently isolated from triatominae and mammalian host (domestic cat). The expression of mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase was analyzed by the Western blotting technique using polyclonal antibody anti mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase obtained from a rabbit immunized with the mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase recombinant protein. All the tested ferrocenyl diamine hydrochlorides were more cytotoxic than benznidazole. The expression of the 25.5 kDa polypeptide of mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase did not increase in strains that were more resistant to the ferrocenyl compounds (SI8 and SIGR3). In addition, a 58 kDa polypeptide was also recognized in all strains. Ferrocenyl diamine hydrochlorides showed trypanocidal activity and the expression of 25.5 kDa mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase is not necessarily increased in some T. cruzi strains. Most likely, other mechanisms, in addition to the over expression of this antioxidative enzyme, should be involved in the escape of parasites from cytotoxic oxidant agents.
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Comparative proteomic analysis of two pathogenic Tritrichomonas foetus genotypes: there is more to the proteome than meets the eye. Int J Parasitol 2017; 47:203-213. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2016.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2016] [Revised: 11/10/2016] [Accepted: 11/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
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dos Santos PF, Moreira DS, Baba EH, Volpe CM, Ruiz JC, Romanha AJ, Murta SM. Molecular characterization of lipoamide dehydrogenase gene in Trypanosoma cruzi populations susceptible and resistant to benznidazole. Exp Parasitol 2016; 170:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2016.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Revised: 07/18/2016] [Accepted: 08/22/2016] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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14
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Peloso EF, Dias L, Queiroz RML, Leme AFPP, Pereira CN, Carnielli CM, Werneck CC, Sousa MV, Ricart CAO, Gadelha FR. Trypanosoma cruzi mitochondrial tryparedoxin peroxidase is located throughout the cell and its pull down provides one step towards the understanding of its mechanism of action. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-PROTEINS AND PROTEOMICS 2015; 1864:1-10. [PMID: 26527457 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbapap.2015.10.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2015] [Revised: 09/23/2015] [Accepted: 10/16/2015] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi depends on the effectiveness of redox metabolism to survive and ensure infection in the host. Homeostasis of redox metabolism in T. cruzi is achieved by the actions of several proteins that differ in many aspects from host proteins. Although extensive research has been performed examining hydroperoxide cytosolic antioxidant defense centered on trypanothione, the mechanisms of mitochondrial antioxidant defense are not yet known. The aim of this study was to elucidate the partners of TcMPx antioxidant pathway and to determine the influence of the cellular context (physiological versus oxidative stress). Through co-precipitation coupled with a mass spectrometry approach, a variety of proteins were detected under physiological and oxidative stress conditions. Interestingly, functional category analysis of the proteins identified under physiological conditions showed that they were involved in the stress response, oxidoreduction, thiol transfer, and metabolic processes; this profile is distinct under oxidative stress conditions likely due to structural alterations. Our findings help to elucidate the reactions involving TcMPx and most importantly also reveal that this protein is present throughout the cell and that its interaction partners change following oxidative stress exposure. The involvement and significance of the proteins found to interact with TcMPx and other possible functions for this protein are discussed widening our knowledge regarding T. cruzi mitochondrial antioxidant defenses.
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Affiliation(s)
- E F Peloso
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Tecidual, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - L Dias
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Tecidual, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - R M L Queiroz
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Química de Proteínas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - A F P Paes Leme
- Centro Nacional de Pesquisa em Energia e Materiais, Laboratório Nacional de Biociências, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - C N Pereira
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Tecidual, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - C M Carnielli
- Centro Nacional de Pesquisa em Energia e Materiais, Laboratório Nacional de Biociências, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - C C Werneck
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Tecidual, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil
| | - M V Sousa
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Química de Proteínas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - C A O Ricart
- Laboratório de Bioquímica e Química de Proteínas, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade de Brasília, Brasília, DF, Brazil
| | - F R Gadelha
- Departamento de Bioquímica e Biologia Tecidual, UNICAMP, Campinas, SP, Brazil.
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15
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Moreira DDS, Pescher P, Laurent C, Lenormand P, Späth GF, Murta SMF. Phosphoproteomic analysis of wild-type and antimony-resistant Leishmania braziliensis lines by 2D-DIGE technology. Proteomics 2015; 15:2999-3019. [PMID: 25959087 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201400611] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2014] [Revised: 03/30/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Protein phosphorylation is one of the most studied post-translational modifications that is involved in different cellular events in Leishmania. In this study, we performed a comparative phosphoproteomics analysis of potassium antimonyl tartrate (SbIII)-resistant and -susceptible lines of Leishmania braziliensis using a 2D-DIGE approach followed by MS. In order to investigate the differential phosphoprotein abundance associated with the drug-induced stress response and SbIII-resistance mechanisms, we compared nontreated and SbIII-treated samples of each line. Pair wise comparisons revealed a total of 116 spots that showed a statistically significant difference in phosphoprotein abundance, including 11 and 34 spots specifically correlated with drug treatment and resistance, respectively. We identified 48 different proteins distributed into seven biological process categories. The category "protein folding/chaperones and stress response" is mainly implicated in response to SbIII treatment, while the categories "antioxidant/detoxification," "metabolic process," "RNA/DNA processing," and "protein biosynthesis" are modulated in the case of antimony resistance. Multiple sequence alignments were performed to validate the conservation of phosphorylated residues in nine proteins identified here. Western blot assays were carried out to validate the quantitative phosphoproteome analysis. The results revealed differential expression level of three phosphoproteins in the lines analyzed. This novel study allowed us to profile the L. braziliensis phosphoproteome, identifying several potential candidates for biochemical or signaling networks associated with antimony resistance phenotype in this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Douglas de Souza Moreira
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou CPqRR/Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Pascale Pescher
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA2581, Unité de Parasitologie Moléculaire et Signalisation, Paris, France
| | - Christine Laurent
- Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Pasteur-Genopole Ile-de-France, Plate-forme de Protéomique, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Pascal Lenormand
- Department of Structural Biology and Chemistry, Pasteur-Genopole Ile-de-France, Plate-forme de Protéomique, Institut Pasteur, Paris, France
| | - Gerald F Späth
- Institut Pasteur, CNRS URA2581, Unité de Parasitologie Moléculaire et Signalisation, Paris, France
| | - Silvane M F Murta
- Laboratório de Parasitologia Celular e Molecular, Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou CPqRR/Fiocruz, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
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Molecular characterization of Cyclophilin (TcCyP19) in Trypanosoma cruzi populations susceptible and resistant to benznidazole. Exp Parasitol 2014; 148:73-80. [PMID: 25450774 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2014.11.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2014] [Revised: 11/11/2014] [Accepted: 11/18/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Cyclophilin (CyP), a peptidyl-prolyl cis/trans isomerase, is a key molecule with diverse biological functions that include roles in molecular chaperoning, stress response, immune modulation, and signal transduction. In this respect, CyP could serve as a potential drug target in disease-causing parasites. Previous studies employing proteomics techniques have shown that the TcCyP19 isoform was more abundant in a benznidazole (BZ)-resistant Trypanosoma cruzi population than in its susceptible counterpart. In this study, TcCyP19 has been characterized in BZ-susceptible and BZ-resistant T. cruzi populations. Phylogenetic analysis revealed a clear dichotomy between Cyphophilin A (CyPA) sequences from trypanosomatids and mammals. Sequencing analysis revealed that the amino acid sequences of TcCyP19 were identical among the T. cruzi samples analyzed. Southern blot analysis showed that TcCyP19 is a single-copy gene, located in chromosomal bands varying in size from 0.68 to 2.2 Mb, depending on the strain of T. cruzi. Northern blot and qPCR indicated that the levels of TcCyP19 mRNA were twofold higher in drug-resistant T. cruzi populations than in their drug-susceptible counterparts. Similarly, as determined by two-dimensional gel electrophoresis immunoblot, the expression of TcCyP19 protein was increased to the same degree in BZ-resistant T. cruzi populations. No differences in TcCyP19 mRNA and protein expression levels were observed between the susceptible and the naturally resistant T. cruzi strains analyzed. Taken together, these data indicate that cyclophilin TcCyP19 expression is up-regulated at both transcriptional and translational levels in T. cruzi populations that were in vitro-induced and in vivo-selected for resistance to BZ.
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17
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Andrade JM, Murta SMF. Functional analysis of cytosolic tryparedoxin peroxidase in antimony-resistant and -susceptible Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania infantum lines. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:406. [PMID: 25174795 PMCID: PMC4261743 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-406] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Accepted: 08/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Tryparedoxin peroxidase (TXNPx) participates in defence against oxidative stress as an antioxidant by metabolizing hydrogen peroxide into water molecules. Reports suggest that drug-resistant parasites may increase the levels of TXNPx and other enzymes, thereby protecting them against oxidative stress. Methods In this study, the gene encoding cytosolic TXNPx (cTXNPx) was characterized in lines of Leishmania (Viannia) braziliensis and Leishmania (Leishmania) infantum that are susceptible and resistant to potassium antimony tartrate (Sb(III)). We investigated the levels of mRNA and genomic organization of the cTXNPx gene. In addition, we transfected the Leishmania lines with the cTXNPx gene and analysed the susceptibility of transfected parasites to Sb(III) and to hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Results Northern blot and real-time reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction analyses revealed that the level of TXNPx mRNA was approximately 2.5-fold higher in the Sb(III)-resistant L. braziliensis line than in the parental line. In contrast, no significant difference in cTXNPx mRNA levels between the L. infantum lines was observed. Southern blot analyses revealed that the cTXNPx gene is not amplified in the genome of the Sb(III)-resistant Leishmania lines analysed. Functional analysis of cTXNPx was performed to determine whether overexpression of the enzyme in L. braziliensis and L. infantum lines would change their susceptibility to Sb(III). Western blotting analysis showed that the level of cTXNPx was 2 to 4-fold higher in transfected clones compared to non-transfected cells. Antimony susceptibility test (EC50 assay) revealed that L. braziliensis lines overexpressing cTXNPx had a 2-fold increase in resistance to Sb(III) when compared to the untransfected parental line. In addition, these clones are more tolerant to exogenous H2O2 than the untransfected parental line. In contrast, no difference in Sb(III) susceptibility and a moderate index of resistance to H2O2 was observed in L. infantum clones overexpressing cTXNPx. Conclusion Our functional analysis revealed that cTXNPx is involved in the antimony-resistance phenotype in L. braziliensis. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1756-3305-7-406) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Silvane M F Murta
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou/FIOCRUZ, Avenida Augusto de Lima 1715, Belo Horizonte 30190-002, MG, Brazil.
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The double-edged sword in pathogenic trypanosomatids: the pivotal role of mitochondria in oxidative stress and bioenergetics. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:614014. [PMID: 24800243 PMCID: PMC3988864 DOI: 10.1155/2014/614014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Accepted: 02/17/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
The pathogenic trypanosomatids Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania spp. are the causative agents of African trypanosomiasis, Chagas disease, and leishmaniasis, respectively. These diseases are considered to be neglected tropical illnesses that persist under conditions of poverty and are concentrated in impoverished populations in the developing world. Novel efficient and nontoxic drugs are urgently needed as substitutes for the currently limited chemotherapy. Trypanosomatids display a single mitochondrion with several peculiar features, such as the presence of different energetic and antioxidant enzymes and a specific arrangement of mitochondrial DNA (kinetoplast DNA). Due to mitochondrial differences between mammals and trypanosomatids, this organelle is an excellent candidate for drug intervention. Additionally, during trypanosomatids' life cycle, the shape and functional plasticity of their single mitochondrion undergo profound alterations, reflecting adaptation to different environments. In an uncoupling situation, the organelle produces high amounts of reactive oxygen species. However, these species role in parasite biology is still controversial, involving parasite death, cell signalling, or even proliferation. Novel perspectives on trypanosomatid-targeting chemotherapy could be developed based on better comprehension of mitochondrial oxidative regulation processes.
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Jimenez V. Dealing with environmental challenges: mechanisms of adaptation in Trypanosoma cruzi. Res Microbiol 2014; 165:155-65. [PMID: 24508488 DOI: 10.1016/j.resmic.2014.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2013] [Accepted: 01/27/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Protozoan parasites have a significant impact upon global health, infecting millions of people around the world. With limited therapeutic options and no vaccines available, research efforts are focused upon unraveling cellular mechanisms essential for parasite survival. During its life cycle, Trypanosoma cruzi, the causal agent of Chagas disease, is exposed to multiple external conditions and different hosts. Environmental cues are linked to the differentiation process allowing the parasite to complete its life cycle. Successful transmission depends on the ability of the cells to trigger adaptive responses and cope with stressors while regulating proliferation and transition to different life stages. This review focuses upon different aspects of the stress response in T. cruzi, proposing new hypotheses regarding cross-talk and cross-tolerance with respect to environmental changes and discussing open questions and future directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Jimenez
- Department of Biological Science, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, California State University Fullerton, 800 N State College Blvd, McCarthy Hall 307, 92831 Fullerton, CA, USA.
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20
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Mastronicola D, Falabella M, Testa F, Pucillo LP, Teixeira M, Sarti P, Saraiva LM, Giuffrè A. Functional characterization of peroxiredoxins from the human protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2014; 8:e2631. [PMID: 24416465 PMCID: PMC3886907 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0002631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 11/26/2013] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The microaerophilic protozoan parasite Giardia intestinalis, causative of one of the most common human intestinal diseases worldwide, infects the mucosa of the proximal small intestine, where it has to cope with O2 and nitric oxide (NO). Elucidating the antioxidant defense system of this pathogen lacking catalase and other conventional antioxidant enzymes is thus important to unveil novel potential drug targets. Enzymes metabolizing O2, NO and superoxide anion (O2−•) have been recently reported for Giardia, but it is yet unknown how the parasite copes with H2O2 and peroxynitrite (ONOO−). Giardia encodes two yet uncharacterized 2-cys peroxiredoxins (Prxs), GiPrx1a and GiPrx1b. Peroxiredoxins are peroxidases implicated in virulence and drug resistance in several parasitic protozoa, able to protect from nitroxidative stress and repair oxidatively damaged molecules. GiPrx1a and a truncated form of GiPrx1b (deltaGiPrx1b) were expressed in Escherichia coli, purified and functionally characterized. Both Prxs effectively metabolize H2O2 and alkyl-hydroperoxides (cumyl- and tert-butyl-hydroperoxide) in the presence of NADPH and E. coli thioredoxin reductase/thioredoxin as the reducing system. Stopped-flow experiments show that both proteins in the reduced state react with ONOO− rapidly (k = 4×105 M−1 s−1 and 2×105 M−1 s−1 at 4°C, for GiPrx1a and deltaGiPrx1b, respectively). Consistent with a protective role against oxidative stress, expression of GiPrx1a (but not deltaGiPrx1b) is induced in parasitic cells exposed to air O2 for 24 h. Based on these results, GiPrx1a and deltaGiPrx1b are suggested to play an important role in the antioxidant defense of Giardia, possibly contributing to pathogenesis. Giardia intestinalis causes one of the most common human intestinal diseases worldwide, called giardiasis. This microorganism infects the small intestine where it has to cope with O2, nitric oxide (NO) and related reactive species that are toxic for Giardia as it lacks most of the conventional antioxidant enzymes. Understanding how this pathogen survives oxidative stress is thus important because it may help to identify novel drug targets to combat giardiasis. Some enzymes playing a role in the antioxidant defense of Giardia have been recently reported, but it is yet unknown how the parasite copes with two well-known oxidants, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) and peroxynitrite (ONOO−). In this study, the Authors show that Giardia expresses two enzymes (called peroxiredoxins), yet uncharacterized, that are able not only to degrade both H2O2 and ONOO−, but also to repair damaged molecules (called hydroperoxides) that accumulate in the cell under oxidative stress conditions. These results are totally unprecedented because no enzymes with these types of functions have been reported for Giardia to date. If these two enzymes will prove to be essential for Giardia virulence in future studies, a new way will be paved towards the discovery of novel drugs to treat giardiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Micol Falabella
- Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur – Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Fabrizio Testa
- Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur – Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | | | - Miguel Teixeira
- Instituto de Tecnologia Quimica e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
| | - Paolo Sarti
- CNR Institute of Molecular Biology and Pathology, Rome, Italy
- Department of Biochemical Sciences and Istituto Pasteur – Fondazione Cenci Bolognetti, Sapienza University of Rome, Italy
| | - Lígia M. Saraiva
- Instituto de Tecnologia Quimica e Biológica, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Oeiras, Portugal
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21
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Matrangolo FS, Liarte DB, Andrade LC, de Melo MF, Andrade JM, Ferreira RF, Santiago AS, Pirovani CP, Silva-Pereira RA, Murta SM. Comparative proteomic analysis of antimony-resistant and -susceptible Leishmania braziliensis and Leishmania infantum chagasi lines. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2013; 190:63-75. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2013.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 06/19/2013] [Accepted: 06/24/2013] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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22
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Campos MCO, Castro-Pinto DB, Ribeiro GA, Berredo-Pinho MM, Gomes LHF, da Silva Bellieny MS, Goulart CM, Echevarria A, Leon LL. P-glycoprotein efflux pump plays an important role in Trypanosoma cruzi drug resistance. Parasitol Res 2013; 112:2341-51. [PMID: 23572046 PMCID: PMC3663987 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3398-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Drug resistance in protozoan parasites has been associated with the P-glycoprotein (Pgp), an energy-dependent efflux pump that transports substances across the membrane. Interestingly, the genes TcPGP1 and TcPGP2 have been described in Trypanosoma cruzi, although the function of these genes has not been fully elucidated. The main goal of this work was to investigate Pgp efflux pump activity and expression in T. cruzi lines submitted to in vitro induced resistance to the compounds 4-N-(2-methoxy styryl)-thiosemicarbazone (2-Meotio) and benznidazole (Bz) and to verify the stability of the resistant phenotypes during the parasite life cycle. We observed that the EC50 values for the treatment of epimastigotes with 2-Meotio or Bz were increased at least 4.7-fold in resistant lines, and this phenotype was maintained in metacyclic trypomastigotes, cell-derived trypomastigotes, and intracellular amastigotes. However, in epimastigotes, 2-Meotio resistance is reversible, but Bz resistance is irreversible. When compared with the parental line, the resistant lines exhibited higher Pgp efflux activity, reversion of the resistant phenotypes in the presence of Pgp inhibitors, cross-resistance with Pgp modulators, higher basal Pgp ATPase activity, and overexpression of the genes TcPGP1 and TcPGP2. In conclusion, the resistance induced in T. cruzi by the compounds 2-Meotio and Bz is maintained during the entire parasite life cycle. Furthermore, our data suggest the participation of the Pgp efflux pump in T. cruzi drug resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mônica Caroline Oliveira Campos
- Laboratório de Bioquímica de Tripanosomatídeos, Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, IOC, Avenida Brasil 4365, Manguinhos, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.
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23
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Soares RP, Torrecilhas AC, Assis RR, Rocha MN, Moura e Castro FA, Freitas GF, Murta SM, Santos SL, Marques AF, Almeida IC, Romanha AJ. Intraspecies variation in Trypanosoma cruzi GPI-mucins: biological activities and differential expression of α-galactosyl residues. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2012; 87:87-96. [PMID: 22764297 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.2012.12-0015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI)-anchored mucins of Trypanosoma cruzi trypomastigotes play an important immunomodulatory role during the course of Chagas disease. Here, some biological activities of tGPI-mucins from four T. cruzi isolates, including benznidazole-susceptible (BZS-Y), benznidazole-resistant (BZR-Y), CL, and Colombiana, were evaluated. GPI-mucins were able to differentially trigger the production of interleukin-12 and nitric oxide in BALB/c macrophages and modulate LLC-MK2 cell invasion. The significance of these variations was assessed after analysis of the terminal α-galactosyl residues. Enzymatic treatment with α-galactosidase indicated a differential expression of O-linked α-galactosyl residues among the strains, with higher expression of this sugar in BZS-Y and BZR-Y T. cruzi populations followed by Colombiana and CL. Unweighted pair group method analysis of the carbohydrate anchor profile and biological parameters allowed the clustering of two groups. One group includes Y and CL strains (T. cruzi II and VI), and the other group is represented by Colombiana strain (T. cruzi I).
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo P Soares
- Centro de Pesquisas René Rachou, FIOCRUZ, Belo Horizonte, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
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Comparative transcriptomic and proteomic analyses of Trichomonas vaginalis following adherence to fibronectin. Infect Immun 2012; 80:3900-11. [PMID: 22927047 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00611-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The morphological transformation of Trichomonas vaginalis from an ellipsoid form in batch culture to an adherent amoeboid form results from the contact of parasites with vaginal epithelial cells and with immobilized fibronectin (FN), a basement membrane component. This suggests host signaling of the parasite. We applied integrated transcriptomic and proteomic approaches to investigate the molecular responses of T. vaginalis upon binding to FN. A transcriptome analysis was performed by using large-scale expressed-sequence-tag (EST) sequencing. A total of 20,704 ESTs generated from batch culture (trophozoite-EST) versus FN-amoeboid trichomonad (FN-EST) cDNA libraries were analyzed. The FN-EST library revealed decreased amounts of transcripts that were of lower abundance in the trophozoite-EST library. There was a shift by FN-bound organisms to the expression of transcripts encoding essential proteins, possibly indicating the expression of genes for adaptation to the morphological changes needed for the FN-adhesive processes. In addition, we identified 43 differentially expressed proteins in the proteomes of FN-bound and unbound trichomonads. Among these proteins, cysteine peptidase, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (an FN-binding protein), and stress-related proteins were upregulated in the FN-adherent cells. Stress-related genes and proteins were highly expressed in both the transcriptome and proteome of FN-bound organisms, implying that these genes and proteins may play critical roles in the response to adherence. This is the first report of a comparative proteomic and transcriptomic analysis after the binding of T. vaginalis to FN. This approach may lead to the discovery of novel virulence genes and affirm the role of genes involved in disease pathogenesis. This knowledge will permit a greater understanding of the complex host-parasite interplay.
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25
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Gretes MC, Poole LB, Karplus PA. Peroxiredoxins in parasites. Antioxid Redox Signal 2012; 17:608-33. [PMID: 22098136 PMCID: PMC3373223 DOI: 10.1089/ars.2011.4404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2011] [Accepted: 11/18/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Parasite survival and virulence relies on effective defenses against reactive oxygen and nitrogen species produced by the host immune system. Peroxiredoxins (Prxs) are ubiquitous enzymes now thought to be central to such defenses and, as such, have potential value as drug targets and vaccine antigens. RECENT ADVANCES Plasmodial and kinetoplastid Prx systems are the most extensively studied, yet remain inadequately understood. For many other parasites our knowledge is even less well developed. Through parasite genome sequencing efforts, however, the key players are being discovered and characterized. Here we describe what is known about the biochemistry, regulation, and cell biology of Prxs in parasitic protozoa, helminths, and fungi. At least one Prx is found in each parasite with a sequenced genome, and a notable theme is the common patterns of expression, localization, and functionality among sequence-similar Prxs in related species. CRITICAL ISSUES The nomenclature of Prxs from parasites is in a state of disarray, causing confusion and making comparative inferences difficult. Here we introduce a systematic Prx naming convention that is consistent between organisms and informative about structural and evolutionary relationships. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The new nomenclature should stimulate the crossfertilization of ideas among parasitologists and with the broader redox research community. The diverse parasite developmental stages and host environments present complex systems in which to explore the variety of roles played by Prxs, with a view toward parlaying what is learned into novel therapies and vaccines that are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael C. Gretes
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
| | - Leslie B. Poole
- Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest University School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina
| | - P. Andrew Karplus
- Department of Biochemistry & Biophysics, Oregon State University, Corvallis, Oregon
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26
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Sensibilidad al benzonidazol de cepas de Trypanosoma cruzi sugiere la circulación de cepas naturalmente resistentes en Colombia. BIOMEDICA 2012. [DOI: 10.7705/biomedica.v32i2.458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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27
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Nogueira FB, Rodrigues JFA, Correa MMS, Ruiz JC, Romanha AJ, Murta SMF. The level of ascorbate peroxidase is enhanced in benznidazole-resistant populations of Trypanosoma cruzi and its expression is modulated by stress generated by hydrogen peroxide. Mem Inst Oswaldo Cruz 2012; 107:494-502. [DOI: 10.1590/s0074-02762012000400009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2011] [Accepted: 12/14/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Peloso EF, Gonçalves CC, Silva TM, Ribeiro LHG, Piñeyro MD, Robello C, Gadelha FR. Tryparedoxin peroxidases and superoxide dismutases expression as well as ROS release are related to Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes growth phases. Arch Biochem Biophys 2012; 520:117-22. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2012.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2011] [Revised: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/28/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
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29
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The Role of Heme and Reactive Oxygen Species in Proliferation and Survival of Trypanosoma cruzi. J Parasitol Res 2011; 2011:174614. [PMID: 22007287 PMCID: PMC3191734 DOI: 10.1155/2011/174614] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma cruzi, the protozoan responsible for Chagas disease, has a complex life cycle comprehending two distinct hosts and a series of morphological and functional transformations. Hemoglobin degradation inside the insect vector releases high amounts of heme, and this molecule is known to exert a number of physiological functions. Moreover, the absence of its complete biosynthetic pathway in T. cruzi indicates heme as an essential molecule for this trypanosomatid survival. Within the hosts, T. cruzi has to cope with sudden environmental changes especially in the redox status and heme is able to increase the basal production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) which can be also produced as byproducts of the parasite aerobic metabolism. In this regard, ROS sensing is likely to be an important mechanism for the adaptation and interaction of these organisms with their hosts. In this paper we discuss the main features of heme and ROS susceptibility in T. cruzi biology.
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30
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Mejía-Jaramillo AM, Fernández GJ, Palacio L, Triana-Chávez O. Gene expression study using real-time PCR identifies an NTR gene as a major marker of resistance to benzonidazole in Trypanosoma cruzi. Parasit Vectors 2011; 4:169. [PMID: 21892937 PMCID: PMC3185274 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-4-169] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2011] [Accepted: 09/05/2011] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Chagas disease is a neglected illness, with limited treatments, caused by the parasite Trypanosoma cruzi. Two drugs are prescribed to treat the disease, nifurtimox and benznidazole, which have been previously reported to have limited efficacy and the appearance of resistance by T. cruzi. Acquisition of drug-resistant phenotypes is a complex physiological process based on single or multiple changes of the genes involved, probably in its mechanisms of action. Results The differential genes expression of a sensitive Trypanosoma cruzi strain and its induced in vitro benznidazole-resistant phenotypes was studied. The stepwise increasing concentration of BZ in the parental strain generated five different resistant populations assessed by the IC50 ranging from 10.49 to 93.7 μM. The resistant populations maintained their phenotype when the BZ was depleted from the culture for many passages. Additionally, the benznidazole-resistant phenotypes presented a cross-resistance to nifurtimox but not to G418 sulfate. On the other hand, four of the five phenotypes resistant to different concentrations of drugs had different expression levels for the 12 genes evaluated by real-time PCR. However, in the most resistant phenotype (TcR5x), the levels of mRNA from these 12 genes and seven more were similar to the parental strain but not for NTR and OYE genes, which were down-regulated and over-expressed, respectively. The number of copies for these two genes was evaluated for the parental strain and the TcR5x phenotype, revealing that the NTR gene had lost a copy in this last phenotype. No changes were found in the enzyme activity of CPR and SOD in the most resistant population. Finally, there was no variability of genetic profiles among all the parasite populations evaluated by performing low-stringency single-specific primer PCR (LSSP-PCR) and random amplified polymorphic DNA RAPD techniques, indicating that no clonal selection or drastic genetic changes had occurred for the exposure to BZ. Conclusion Here, we propose NTR as the major marker of the appearance of resistance to BZ.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana M Mejía-Jaramillo
- Grupo Biología y Control de Enfermedades Infecciosas-BCEI-SIU, Instituto de Biología, Universidad de Antioquia, Medellín, Colombia
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Díaz M, Solari A, González C. Differential expression of Trypanosoma cruzi I associated with clinical forms of Chagas disease: Overexpression of oxidative stress proteins in acute patient isolate. J Proteomics 2011; 74:1673-82. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2011.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2010] [Revised: 04/30/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Tryparedoxin peroxidases from Trypanosoma cruzi: High efficiency in the catalytic elimination of hydrogen peroxide and peroxynitrite. Arch Biochem Biophys 2011; 507:287-95. [DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2010.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 12/11/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Wen JJ, Gupta S, Guan Z, Dhiman M, Condon D, Lui C, Garg NJ. Phenyl-alpha-tert-butyl-nitrone and benzonidazole treatment controlled the mitochondrial oxidative stress and evolution of cardiomyopathy in chronic chagasic Rats. J Am Coll Cardiol 2010; 55:2499-508. [PMID: 20510218 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2010.02.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2009] [Revised: 02/09/2010] [Accepted: 02/15/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The purpose of this study was to determine the pathological importance of oxidative stress-induced injurious processes in chagasic heart dysfunction. BACKGROUND Trypanosoma cruzi-induced inflammatory pathology and a feedback cycle of mitochondrial dysfunction and oxidative stress may contribute to Chagas disease. METHODS Sprague-Dawley rats were infected with T. cruzi and treated with phenyl-alpha-tert-butylnitrone (PBN), an antioxidant, and/or benzonidazole (BZ), an antiparasitic agent. We monitored myocardial parasite burden, oxidative adducts, mitochondrial complex activities, respiration, and adenosine triphosphate synthesis rates, and inflammatory and cardiac remodeling responses during disease development. The cardiac hemodynamics was determined for all rats. RESULTS Benzonidazole (not PBN) decreased the parasite persistence and immune adverse events (proinflammatory cytokine expression, beta-nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate oxidase and myeloperoxidase activities, and inflammatory infiltrate) in chronically infected hearts. PBN +/- BZ (not BZ alone) decreased the mitochondrial reactive oxygen species level, oxidative adducts (malonyldialdehyde, 4-hydroxynonenal, carbonyls), hypertrophic gene expression (atrial natriuretic peptide, B-type natriuretic peptide, alpha-skeletal actin), and collagen deposition and preserved the respiratory chain efficiency and energy status in chronically infected hearts. Subsequently, LV dysfunction was prevented in PBN +/- BZ-treated chagasic rats. CONCLUSIONS BZ treatment after the acute stage decreased the parasite persistence and inflammatory pathology. Yet, oxidative adducts, mitochondrial dysfunction, and remodeling responses persisted and contributed to declining cardiac function in chagasic rats. Combination treatment (PBN + BZ) was beneficial in arresting the T. cruzi-induced inflammatory and oxidative pathology and chronic heart failure in chagasic rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jian-Jun Wen
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, Texas 77555-1070, USA
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Roy N, Nageshan RK, Pallavi R, Chakravarthy H, Chandran S, Kumar R, Gupta AK, Singh RK, Yadav SC, Tatu U. Proteomics of Trypanosoma evansi infection in rodents. PLoS One 2010; 5:e9796. [PMID: 20339546 PMCID: PMC2842431 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0009796] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2009] [Accepted: 02/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trypanosoma evansi infections, commonly called ‘surra’, cause significant economic losses to livestock industry. While this infection is mainly restricted to large animals such as camels, donkeys and equines, recent reports indicate their ability to infect humans. There are no World Animal Health Organization (WAHO) prescribed diagnostic tests or vaccines available against this disease and the available drugs show significant toxicity. There is an urgent need to develop improved methods of diagnosis and control measures for this disease. Unlike its related human parasites T. brucei and T. cruzi whose genomes have been fully sequenced T. evansi genome sequence remains unavailable and very little efforts are being made to develop improved methods of prevention, diagnosis and treatment. With a view to identify potential diagnostic markers and drug targets we have studied the clinical proteome of T. evansi infection using mass spectrometry (MS). Methodology/Principal Findings Using shot-gun proteomic approach involving nano-lc Quadrupole Time Of Flight (QTOF) mass spectrometry we have identified over 160 proteins expressed by T. evansi in mice infected with camel isolate. Homology driven searches for protein identification from MS/MS data led to most of the matches arising from related Trypanosoma species. Proteins identified belonged to various functional categories including metabolic enzymes; DNA metabolism; transcription; translation as well as cell-cell communication and signal transduction. TCA cycle enzymes were strikingly missing, possibly suggesting their low abundances. The clinical proteome revealed the presence of known and potential drug targets such as oligopeptidases, kinases, cysteine proteases and more. Conclusions/Significance Previous proteomic studies on Trypanosomal infections, including human parasites T. brucei and T. cruzi, have been carried out from lab grown cultures. For T. evansi infection this is indeed the first ever proteomic study reported thus far. In addition to providing a glimpse into the biology of this neglected disease, our study is the first step towards identification of diagnostic biomarkers, novel drug targets as well as potential vaccine candidates to fight against T. evansi infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nainita Roy
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Rani Pallavi
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | | | - Syama Chandran
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
| | | | | | | | | | - Utpal Tatu
- Department of Biochemistry, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
The protozoan parasitesTrypanosoma bruceiandTrypanosoma cruziare the causative agents of African trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease, respectively. These are debilitating infections that exert a considerable health burden on some of the poorest people on the planet. Treatment of trypanosome infections is dependent on a small number of drugs that have limited efficacy and can cause severe side effects. Here, we review the properties of these drugs and describe new findings on their modes of action and the mechanisms by which resistance can arise. We further outline how a greater understanding of parasite biology is being exploited in the search for novel chemotherapeutic agents. This effort is being facilitated by new research networks that involve academic and biotechnology/pharmaceutical organisations, supported by public–private partnerships, and are bringing a new dynamism and purpose to the search for trypanocidal agents.
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