1
|
Lu L, Zhang F, Oude Munnink BB, Munger E, Sikkema RS, Pappa S, Tsioka K, Sinigaglia A, Dal Molin E, Shih BB, Günther A, Pohlmann A, Ziegler U, Beer M, Taylor RA, Bartumeus F, Woolhouse M, Aarestrup FM, Barzon L, Papa A, Lycett S, Koopmans MPG. West Nile virus spread in Europe: Phylogeographic pattern analysis and key drivers. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1011880. [PMID: 38271294 PMCID: PMC10810478 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011880] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND West Nile virus (WNV) outbreaks in birds, humans, and livestock have occurred in multiple areas in Europe and have had a significant impact on animal and human health. The patterns of emergence and spread of WNV in Europe are very different from those in the US and understanding these are important for guiding preparedness activities. METHODS We mapped the evolution and spread history of WNV in Europe by incorporating viral genome sequences and epidemiological data into phylodynamic models. Spatially explicit phylogeographic models were developed to explore the possible contribution of different drivers to viral dispersal direction and velocity. A "skygrid-GLM" approach was used to identify how changes in environments would predict viral genetic diversity variations over time. FINDINGS Among the six lineages found in Europe, WNV-2a (a sub-lineage of WNV-2) has been predominant (accounting for 73% of all sequences obtained in Europe that have been shared in the public domain) and has spread to at least 14 countries. In the past two decades, WNV-2a has evolved into two major co-circulating clusters, both originating from Central Europe, but with distinct dynamic history and transmission patterns. WNV-2a spreads at a high dispersal velocity (88km/yr-215 km/yr) which is correlated to bird movements. Notably, amongst multiple drivers that could affect the spread of WNV, factors related to land use were found to strongly influence the spread of WNV. Specifically, the intensity of agricultural activities (defined by factors related to crops and livestock production, such as coverage of cropland, pasture, cultivated and managed vegetation, livestock density) were positively associated with both spread direction and velocity. In addition, WNV spread direction was associated with high coverage of wetlands and migratory bird flyways. CONCLUSION Our results suggest that-in addition to ecological conditions favouring bird- and mosquito- presence-agricultural land use may be a significant driver of WNV emergence and spread. Our study also identified significant gaps in data and the need to strengthen virological surveillance in countries of Central Europe from where WNV outbreaks are likely seeded. Enhanced monitoring for early detection of further dispersal could be targeted to areas with high agricultural activities and habitats of migratory birds.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lu Lu
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
- Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Feifei Zhang
- Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Bas B. Oude Munnink
- Erasmus MC, Viroscience and Pandemic and Disaster Preparedness Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Emmanuelle Munger
- Erasmus MC, Viroscience and Pandemic and Disaster Preparedness Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Reina S. Sikkema
- Erasmus MC, Viroscience and Pandemic and Disaster Preparedness Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Styliani Pappa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Katerina Tsioka
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | | | - Barbara B. Shih
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Anne Günther
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Riems, Germany
| | - Anne Pohlmann
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Riems, Germany
| | - Ute Ziegler
- Institute of Novel and Emerging Infectious Diseases, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Riems, Germany
| | - Martin Beer
- Institute of Diagnostic Virology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institut, Greifswald-Riems, Germany
| | - Rachel A. Taylor
- Department of Epidemiological Sciences, Animal and Plant Health Agency, United Kingdom
| | - Frederic Bartumeus
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB-CSIC), Girona, Spain
- Centre for Research on Ecology and Forestry Applications (CREAF), Barcelona, Spain
- Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mark Woolhouse
- Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Frank M. Aarestrup
- Research Group for Genomic Epidemiology, Technical University of Denmark, Kongens Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, Padua, Italy
| | - Anna Papa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Samantha Lycett
- Roslin Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Marion P. G. Koopmans
- Erasmus MC, Viroscience and Pandemic and Disaster Preparedness Centre, Rotterdam, the Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Pervanidou D, Kefaloudi CN, Vakali A, Tsakalidou O, Karatheodorou M, Tsioka K, Evangelidou M, Mellou K, Pappa S, Stoikou K, Bakaloudi V, Koliopoulos G, Stamoulis K, Patsoula E, Politis C, Hadjichristodoulou C, Papa A. The 2022 West Nile Virus Season in Greece; A Quite Intense Season. Viruses 2023; 15:1481. [PMID: 37515168 PMCID: PMC10383024 DOI: 10.3390/v15071481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2023] [Revised: 06/23/2023] [Accepted: 06/26/2023] [Indexed: 07/30/2023] Open
Abstract
Since 2010, the West Nile virus (WNV) has been established in Greece. We describe the epidemiology of diagnosed human WNV infections in Greece with a focus on the 2022 season. During the transmission period, clinicians were sending samples from suspected cases for testing. Active laboratory-based surveillance was performed with immediate notification of diagnosed cases. We collected clinical information and interviewed patients on a timely basis to identify their place of exposure. Besides serological and molecular diagnostic methods, next-generation sequencing was also performed. In 2022, 286 cases of WNV infection were diagnosed, including 278 symptomatic cases and 184 (64%) cases with neuroinvasive disease (WNND); 33 patients died. This was the third most intense season concerning the number of WNND cases, following 2018 and 2010. Most (96%) cases were recorded in two regions, in northern and central Greece. The virus strain was a variant of previous years, clustering into the Central European subclade of WNV lineage 2. The 2022 WNV season was quite intense in Greece. The prompt diagnosis and investigation of cases are considered pivotal for the timely response, while the availability of whole genome sequences enables studies on the molecular epidemiology of the disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danai Pervanidou
- National Public Health Organization (EODY), 151 23 Athens, Greece
| | | | - Anna Vakali
- National Public Health Organization (EODY), 151 23 Athens, Greece
| | - Ourania Tsakalidou
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Myrsini Karatheodorou
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Katerina Tsioka
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Kassiani Mellou
- National Public Health Organization (EODY), 151 23 Athens, Greece
| | - Styliani Pappa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantina Stoikou
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Vasiliki Bakaloudi
- Molecular Blood Center, AHEPA University General Hospital, 546 36 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - George Koliopoulos
- Department of Crop Science, School of Plant Sciences, Agricultural University of Athens, 118 55 Athens, Greece
| | - Kostas Stamoulis
- Hellenic National Blood Transfusion Center, 136 72 Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Patsoula
- Department of Public Health Policy, School of Public Health, University of West Attica, 115 21 Athens, Greece
| | | | - Christos Hadjichristodoulou
- Department of Hygiene and Epidemiology, School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, University of Thessaly, 412 22 Larisa, Greece
| | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 541 24 Thessaloniki, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Tsioka K, Gewehr S, Pappa S, Kalaitzopoulou S, Stoikou K, Mourelatos S, Papa A. West Nile Virus in Culex Mosquitoes in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2022. Viruses 2023; 15:224. [PMID: 36680264 PMCID: PMC9863787 DOI: 10.3390/v15010224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
In 2022, Greece was the second most seriously affected European country in terms of the West Nile virus (WNV), after Italy. Specifically, Central Macedonia was the region with the most reported human cases (81.5%). In the present study, 30,816 female Culex pipiens sensu lato mosquitoes were collected from May to September 2022 in the seven regional units of Central Macedonia; they were then grouped into 690 pools and tested for WNV, while next-generation sequencing was applied to the samples, which showed a cycle threshold of Ct < 30 in a real-time RT-PCR test. WNV was detected in 5.9% of pools, with significant differences in the detection rate among regional units and months. It is of interest that in the Thessaloniki regional unit, where most of the human cases were observed, the virus circulation started earlier, peaked earlier, and lasted longer than in the other regional units. All sequences clustered into the Central European subclade of WNV lineage 2, and the virus strain differed from the initial Greek strain of 2010 by 0.52% and 0.27% at the nucleotide and amino acid levels, respectively. Signature substitutions were present, such as S73P and T157A in the prM and E structural proteins, respectively. The screening of mosquitoes provides useful information for virus circulation in a region with a potential for early warning, while the availability of whole-genome sequences is essential for further studies, including virus evolution.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Tsioka
- Laboratory of Microbiology, National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Styliani Pappa
- Laboratory of Microbiology, National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Konstantina Stoikou
- Laboratory of Microbiology, National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Anna Papa
- Laboratory of Microbiology, National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, 54124 Thessaloniki, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Pallari CT, Christodoulou V, Koliou M, Kirschel ANG. First detection of WNV RNA presence in field-collected mosquitoes in Cyprus. Acta Trop 2022; 231:106470. [PMID: 35430264 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 04/11/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) infections have increased over recent years to the extent that WNV has become one of the most widespread arboviruses in the world, with potential consequences for both human and animal health. While much is known about WNV and the vectors that transmit it from their primary hosts across continental Europe, little is known about the epidemiology of the disease on the island of Cyprus. In this study, the aim was to investigate the prevalence of WNV infection in potential mosquito vectors for the first time in the Republic of Cyprus, using WNV surveillance of mosquitoes. Mosquitoes were collected in 2019, during which an outbreak in humans had occurred, and sampled mosquitoes were then examined for WNV infection by testing them for the presence of WNV RNA. Of 126 mosquito pools tested, one pool, containing Culex pipiens mosquitoes sampled from the Nicosia district, was found to be positive for the presence of WNV RNA. The positive pool found in this study represents the first demonstration of WNV in mosquitoes in Cyprus and confirms that human cases in Cyprus are likely the result of transmission via local Culex mosquitoes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chryso Th Pallari
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia, 1678, Cyprus
| | | | - Maria Koliou
- Medical School, University of Cyprus, Siakoleio Center of Clinical Medicine, 2029 Aglantzia PO Box 20537, 1678, Nicosia, Cyprus
| | - Alexander N G Kirschel
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Cyprus, PO Box 20537, Nicosia, 1678, Cyprus.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Tsioka K, Gewehr S, Kalaitzopoulou S, Pappa S, Stoikou K, Mourelatos S, Papa A. Detection and molecular characterization of West Nile virus in Culex pipiens mosquitoes in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2019-2021. Acta Trop 2022; 230:106391. [PMID: 35271813 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2022.106391] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2021] [Revised: 03/03/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Since 2010 when West Nile virus (WNV) emerged in Greece, it causes seasonal outbreaks of human infections almost every year. During May-October of 2019-2021 a total number of 51,504 Culex pipiens mosquitoes were trapped in all seven regional units of Central Macedonia in northern Greece. They were grouped into 1099 pools and tested for WNV. The virus was detected in 5% of the mosquito pools (1.5%, 3.6% and 9.6% pools in 2019, 2020, and 2021, respectively), with significant rate differences among the regional units and years. The highest maximum likelihood estimation for WNV infection rates calculated per 1000 mosquitoes for 2019 and 2020 were 1.89 and 3.84 in Serres, and 7.08 for 2021 in Pella regional unit. Sixteen whole genome sequences were taken by applying a recently described PCR-based next generation sequencing protocol. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the sequences belonged to the Central European clade of WNV lineage 2, and that a virus strain introduced in Greece in 2019 continued to circulate and spread further during 2020-2021. The data are useful for public health and mosquito control programs' operational scheduling, while the whole genome sequences are an added value for molecular epidemiology and evolutionary studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Katerina Tsioka
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Laboratory of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece.
| | | | | | - Styliani Pappa
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Laboratory of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Konstantina Stoikou
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Laboratory of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Laboratory of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Pervanidou D, Vakali A, Georgakopoulou T, Panagiotopoulos T, Patsoula E, Koliopoulos G, Politis C, Stamoulis K, Gavana E, Pappa S, Mavrouli M, Emmanouil M, Sourvinos G, Mentis A, Tsakris A, Hadjichristodoulou C, Tsiodras S, Papa A. West Nile virus in humans, Greece, 2018: the largest seasonal number of cases, 9 years after its emergence in the country. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 25. [PMID: 32794446 PMCID: PMC7427301 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.32.1900543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Background Human cases of West Nile virus (WNV) infection are recorded since 2010 in Greece, with seasonal outbreaks occurring almost annually. Enhanced surveillance has been implemented since 2010, to promptly characterise cases’ temporal and geographical distribution and inform authorities for implementation of appropriate measures (mosquito control, health education, blood safety). Aim We describe the epidemiology of WNV human infections in Greece focusing on the 2018 season. Methods The National Public Health Organization advised physicians to test all suspect WNV infection cases and refer samples to reference laboratories. Laboratories notified diagnosed cases on a daily basis. Treating physicians, patients, and infected blood donors were interviewed within 48 hours after diagnosis and the probable infection location was identified. Hospitalised cases were followed up until discharge. Results A total of 317 autochthonous WNV infection cases were diagnosed in 2018. Among them, 243 cases had neuroinvasive disease (WNND), representing a 23% increase of WNND cases compared with 2010, the previous most intense season. There were 51 deaths. Cases started occurring from week 22, earlier than usual. Both rural and urban areas were affected, with 86 (26% of the total) municipalities belonging to seven (54% of the total) regions recording cases. Two major epicentres were identified in Attica and Central Macedonia regions. Conclusions The largest number of human cases of WNV infection ever recorded in Greece occurred in 2018, with a wide geographical distribution, suggesting intense virus circulation. Enhanced surveillance is vital for the early detection of human cases and the prompt implementation of response measures.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danai Pervanidou
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Annita Vakali
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Theano Georgakopoulou
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Takis Panagiotopoulos
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Public Health Policy, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | - Eleni Patsoula
- School of Public Health, Faculty of Public Health Policy, University of West Attica, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Constantina Politis
- Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Elpida Gavana
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Styliani Pappa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Maria Mavrouli
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Maria Emmanouil
- Diagnostic Services Laboratory, Public Health Laboratories, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - George Sourvinos
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, Medical School, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Andreas Mentis
- Diagnostic Services Laboratory, Public Health Laboratories, Hellenic Pasteur Institute, Athens, Greece
| | - Athanassios Tsakris
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | - Sotirios Tsiodras
- National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece.,Hellenic National Public Health Organization/former Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses and Haemorrhagic Fever Viruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Papa A, Tsioka K, Gewehr S, Kalaitzopoulou S, Pappa S, Mourelatos S. West Nile virus lineage 2 in Culex mosquitoes in Thessaly, Greece, 2019. Acta Trop 2020; 208:105514. [PMID: 32422381 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2020.105514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/29/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 04/19/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
West Nile virus is a flavivirus transmitted to humans mainly by mosquito bites. Outbreaks are observed in several European countries, and Greece is one of the most affected countries during the recent years. Thessaly was one of the most affected regions in Greece in 2019. A total of 3,025 Culex spp. mosquitoes collected in Thessaly were grouped into 47 pools and tested for West Nile virus (WNV). Eight (17%) pools were found positive. Whole genome sequences were obtained from two positive pools. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the causative strain was an evolutionary variant of the strains circulating in 2018 belonging to the Balkan subgroup of the Central European subclade of WNV lineage 2.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Papa
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124 Greece.
| | - Katerina Tsioka
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124 Greece
| | | | | | - Styliani Pappa
- National Reference Centre for Arboviruses, Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, 54124 Greece
| | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Papa A, Gewehr S, Tsioka K, Kalaitzopoulou S, Pappa S, Mourelatos S. Detection of flaviviruses and alphaviruses in mosquitoes in Central Macedonia, Greece, 2018. Acta Trop 2020; 202:105278. [PMID: 31756306 DOI: 10.1016/j.actatropica.2019.105278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2019] [Revised: 11/18/2019] [Accepted: 11/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Culex mosquitoes are vectors of several flaviviruses and alphaviruses posing a potential risk to public and veterinary health. In order to gain an insight into the flaviviruses and alphaviruses circulating in the five regional units of Central Macedonia in northern Greece, 17,470 female Culex spp. mosquitoes collected during 2018 were tested for these viruses. Among 229 mosquito pools, West Nile virus (WNV) was detected in 10 (4.4%) pools, while insect-specific flavi- and alphaviruses were detected in 2 (0.9%) and 8 (3.5%) pools, respectively. WNV minimum infection rate (MIR) was 0.57. The highest MIR was identified in Thessaloniki regional unit, where several human cases of WNV infection occurred in 2018. All ten WNV sequences cluster into the Central European subclade of lineage 2. It is of note that the first WNV-positive mosquito pool was detected two weeks prior the report of the first human case in the area, suggesting that testing of mosquitoes could serve as early warning system.
Collapse
|
9
|
Francuski L, Gojković N, Krtinić B, Milankov V. The diagnostic utility of sequence-based assays for the molecular delimitation of the epidemiologically relevant Culex pipiens pipiens taxa (Diptera: Culicidae). BULLETIN OF ENTOMOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2019; 109:752-761. [PMID: 30968784 DOI: 10.1017/s0007485319000105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
The northern house mosquito (Culex pipiens pipiens L.) is a vector of several important pathogens and comprises two epidemiologically distinct ecotypes (molestus Forskål and pipiens). The delimitation of its ecotypes is a crucial, yet controversial step in vector surveillance due to varying diagnostic values of different characters. Therefore, we reviewed the success of a diagnostic assay based on the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I locus (COI) by analyzing previously published sequences of molestus and pipiens sampled in different geographical areas. Next, by genotyping individuals from Northern Serbia at this locus, we additionally assessed whether genetic structure of urban and rural Cx. p. pipiens ecotypes corresponded to the admixture pattern. Finally, to account for the different susceptibility of genetic markers to introgression, we also analyzed genetic structuring based on the ribosomal internal transcribed spacer 2 (ITS2). No latitude-dependent differentiation of Cx. p. pipiens ecotypes was found at a global level, with the COI assay further failing to accurately identify molestus and pipiens ecotypes. Likewise, both individual- (BAPS) and population-based (analysis of molecular variance and FST estimates) methods showed no significant urban/rural genetic differentiation in Serbia, indicating unhindered gene flow between different Cx. p. pipiens habitat types. The findings challenge the previous instances of Cx. p. pipiens ecotype identification, while also spotlighting the vectorial capacity of their hybrid offspring.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- L Francuski
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - N Gojković
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - B Krtinić
- Ciklonizacija, Primorska 76, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - V Milankov
- Department of Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Sciences, University of Novi Sad, Trg Dositeja Obradovića 2, 21000 Novi Sad, Serbia
| |
Collapse
|
10
|
Vogels CB, Göertz GP, Pijlman GP, Koenraadt CJ. Vector competence of European mosquitoes for West Nile virus. Emerg Microbes Infect 2017; 6:e96. [PMID: 29116220 PMCID: PMC5717085 DOI: 10.1038/emi.2017.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2017] [Revised: 08/23/2017] [Accepted: 08/27/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is an arthropod-borne flavivirus of high medical and veterinary importance. The main vectors for WNV are mosquito species of the Culex genus that transmit WNV among birds, and occasionally to humans and horses, which are ‘dead-end’ hosts. Recently, several studies have been published that aimed to identify the mosquito species that serve as vectors for WNV in Europe. These studies provide insight in factors that can influence vector competence of European mosquito species for WNV. Here, we review the current knowledge on vector competence of European mosquitoes for WNV, and the molecular knowledge on physical barriers, anti-viral pathways and microbes that influence vector competence based on studies with other flaviviruses. By comparing the 12 available WNV vector competence studies with European mosquitoes we evaluate the effect of factors such as temperature, mosquito origin and mosquito biotype on vector competence. In addition, we propose a standardised methodology to allow for comparative studies across Europe. Finally, we identify knowledge gaps regarding vector competence that, once addressed, will provide important insights into WNV transmission and ultimately contribute to effective strategies to control WNV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chantal Bf Vogels
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Giel P Göertz
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gorben P Pijlman
- Laboratory of Virology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Constantianus Jm Koenraadt
- Laboratory of Entomology, Wageningen University & Research, P.O. Box 16, 6700 AA, Wageningen, The Netherlands
| |
Collapse
|
11
|
Modelling West Nile virus transmission risk in Europe: effect of temperature and mosquito biotypes on the basic reproduction number. Sci Rep 2017; 7:5022. [PMID: 28694450 PMCID: PMC5504010 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05185-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2017] [Accepted: 05/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus which has caused repeated outbreaks in humans in southern and central Europe, but thus far not in northern Europe. The main mosquito vector for WNV, Culex pipiens, consists of two behaviourally distinct biotypes, pipiens and molestus, which can form hybrids. Differences between biotypes, such as vector competence and host preference, could be important in determining the risk of WNV outbreaks. Risks for WNV establishment can be modelled with basic reproduction number (R0) models. However, existing R0 models have not differentiated between biotypes. The aim of this study was, therefore, to explore the role of temperature-dependent and biotype-specific effects on the risk of WNV establishment in Europe. We developed an R0 model with temperature-dependent and biotype-specific parameters, and calculated R0 values using the next-generation matrix for several scenarios relevant for Europe. In addition, elasticity analysis was done to investigate the contribution of each biotype to R0. Global warming and increased mosquito-to-host ratios can possibly result in more intense WNV circulation in birds and spill-over to humans in northern Europe. Different contributions of the Cx. pipiens biotypes to R0 shows the importance of including biotype-specific parameters in models for reliable WNV risk assessments.
Collapse
|
12
|
Papa A. Emerging arboviral human diseases in Southern Europe. J Med Virol 2017; 89:1315-1322. [PMID: 28252204 DOI: 10.1002/jmv.24803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Southern Europe is characterized by unique landscape and climate which attract tourists, but also arthropod vectors, some of them carrying pathogens. Among several arboviral diseases that emerged in the region during the last decade, West Nile fever accounted for high number of human cases and fatalities, while Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever expanded its geographic distribution, and is considered as a real threat for Europe. Viruses evolve rapidly and acquire mutations making themselves stronger and naive populations more vulnerable. In an effort to tackle efficiently the emerging arboviral diseases, preparedness and strategic surveillance are needed for the early detection of the pathogen and containment and mitigation of probable outbreaks. In this review, the main human arboviral diseases that emerged in Southern Europe are described.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anna Papa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Stilianakis NI, Syrris V, Petroliagkis T, Pärt P, Gewehr S, Kalaitzopoulou S, Mourelatos S, Baka A, Pervanidou D, Vontas J, Hadjichristodoulou C. Identification of Climatic Factors Affecting the Epidemiology of Human West Nile Virus Infections in Northern Greece. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0161510. [PMID: 27631082 PMCID: PMC5025206 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0161510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Climate can affect the geographic and seasonal patterns of vector-borne disease incidence such as West Nile Virus (WNV) infections. We explore the association between climatic factors and the occurrence of West Nile fever (WNF) or West Nile neuro-invasive disease (WNND) in humans in Northern Greece over the years 2010–2014. Time series over a period of 30 years (1979–2008) of climatic data of air temperature, relative humidity, soil temperature, volumetric soil water content, wind speed, and precipitation representing average climate were obtained utilising the ECMWF’s (European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts) Re-Analysis (ERA-Interim) system allowing for a homogeneous set of data in time and space. We analysed data of reported human cases of WNF/WNND and Culex mosquitoes in Northern Greece. Quantitative assessment resulted in identifying associations between the above climatic variables and reported human cases of WNF/WNND. A substantial fraction of the cases was linked to the upper percentiles of the distribution of air and soil temperature for the period 1979–2008 and the lower percentiles of relative humidity and soil water content. A statistically relevant relationship between the mean weekly value climatic anomalies of wind speed (negative association), relative humidity (negative association) and air temperature (positive association) over 30 years, and reported human cases of WNF/WNND during the period 2010–2014 could be shown. A negative association between the presence of WNV infected Culex mosquitoes and wind speed could be identified. The statistically significant associations could also be confirmed for the week the WNF/WNND human cases appear and when a time lag of up to three weeks was considered. Similar statistically significant associations were identified with the weekly anomalies of the maximum and minimum values of the above climatic factors. Utilising the ERA-Interim re-analysis methodology it could be shown that besides air temperature, climatic factors such as soil temperature, relative humidity, soil water content and wind speed may affect the epidemiology of WNV.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Nikolaos I. Stilianakis
- Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Ispra (VA), Italy
- Department of Biometry and Epidemiology, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Erlangen, Germany
- * E-mail:
| | | | | | - Peeter Pärt
- Joint Research Centre, European Commission, Ispra (VA), Italy
| | | | | | | | - Agoritsa Baka
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens, Greece
| | - Danai Pervanidou
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens, Greece
| | - John Vontas
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology-Hellas, Heraklion, Greece
| | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Insect-specific flaviviruses in Aedes mosquitoes in Greece. Arch Virol 2016; 161:2183-8. [PMID: 27198866 DOI: 10.1007/s00705-016-2877-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 04/26/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes of the genus Aedes are known vectors of pathogenic flaviviruses, and insect-specific flaviviruses (ISFs) have been detected in members of this genus in numerous parts of the world. In order to gain insight into whether Aedes mosquitoes in Greece are infected by flaviviruses, 1173 Aedes spp. mosquitoes collected in 2010 and 2012 were grouped in 53 pools and tested by RT nested PCR using flavivirus generic primers. Eight pools (15.09 %) were found to be PCR positive: five pools (5/53, 9.4 %) contained RNA sequences related to Ochlerotatus caspius flavivirus (OCFV), an ISF previously detected in the Iberian peninsula, two pools (2/53, 3.8 %) contained sequences related to a mosquito flavivirus detected in Aedes vexans (AeveV) in Italy and the Czech Republic, and one pool contained a DNA sequence that was too short to identify accurately. The highest OCFV prevalence (12.9 %) was observed in August 2010 in the regional unit of Thessaloniki. Similar sequences were later obtained from two Culex spp. pools collected in 2013 in the same regions. A genetic difference of 0.2-1.4 % was seen among the Greek OCFV strains, which differed by 2.2-4.1 % from the Iberian strains and by 6.2-11.1 % from the Finnish Hanko virus. The genetic distances among strains varied depending on the genome region (genes for E, NS3 and NS5 proteins), with NS3 being the most variable. The present study shows no evidence of infection of Aedes mosquitoes with known pathogenic flaviviruses, but it expands the geographic distribution of OCFV in the eastern Mediterranean area. Any implication of ISFs for public health (either directly or through interactions with other flaviviruses in the mosquitoes) remains to be elucidated.
Collapse
|
15
|
West Nile Virus Circulation in Mosquitoes in Greece (2010-2013). BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2016; 2016:2450682. [PMID: 27294111 PMCID: PMC4880692 DOI: 10.1155/2016/2450682] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Background of the Study. Following a large West Nile virus (WNV) epidemic in Northern Greece in 2010, an active mosquito surveillance system was implemented, for a 3-year period (2011, 2012, and 2013). Description of the Study Site and Methodology. Using mainly CO2 mosquito traps, mosquito collections were performed. Samples were pooled by date of collection, location, and species and examined for the presence of WNV. Results. Positive pools were detected in different areas of the country. In 2010, MIR and MLE values of 1.92 (95% CI: 0.00-4.57) and 2.30 (95% CI: 0.38-7.49) were calculated for the Serres Regional Unit in Central Macedonia Region. In 2011, the highest MIR value of 3.71(95% CI: 1.52-5.91) was recorded in the Regions of Central Greece and Thessaly. In 2012, MIR and MLE values for the whole country were 2.03 (95% CI: 1.73-2.33) and 2.15 (95% CI: 1.86-2.48), respectively, for Cx. pipiens. In 2013, in the Regional Unit of Attica, the one outbreak epicenter, MIR and MLE values for Cx. pipiens were 10.75 (95% CI: 7.52-13.99) and 15.76 (95% CI: 11.66-20.65), respectively. Significance of Results/Conclusions. The contribution of a mosquito-based surveillance system targeting WNV transmission is highlighted through the obtained data, as in most regions positive mosquito pools were detected prior to the date of symptom onset of human cases. Dissemination of the results on time to Public Health Authorities resulted in planning and application of public health interventions in local level.
Collapse
|
16
|
Hernández-Triana LM, Jeffries CL, Mansfield KL, Carnell G, Fooks AR, Johnson N. Emergence of west nile virus lineage 2 in europe: a review on the introduction and spread of a mosquito-borne disease. Front Public Health 2014; 2:271. [PMID: 25538937 PMCID: PMC4258884 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2014.00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2014] [Accepted: 11/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is transmitted by mosquitoes and causes fever and encephalitis in humans, equines, and occasionally wild birds. The virus was first isolated in sub-Saharan Africa where it is endemic. WNV lineage 1 has been responsible for repeated disease outbreaks in the countries of the Mediterranean basin over the past 50 years. This lineage was also introduced into North America in 1999 causing widespread human, equine, and avian mortality. WNV lineage 2, the first WNV lineage to be isolated, was believed to be restricted to sub-Saharan Africa causing a relatively mild fever in humans. However, in 2004, an investigation in Hungary of a case of encephalitis in a wild goshawk (Accipiter gentiles) resulted in the isolation of WNV lineage 2. During the summer of 2004, and in subsequent years, the virus appeared to spread locally throughout Hungary and into neighboring Austria. Subsequently, WNV lineage 2 emerged in Greece in 2010 and in Italy in 2011, involving outbreaks on the Italian mainland and Sardinia. Further spread through the Balkan countries is also suspected. Whole genome sequencing has confirmed that the virus responsible for the outbreaks in Greece and Italy was almost identical to that isolated in Hungary. However, unlike the outbreaks in Hungary, the burden of disease in Mediterranean countries has fallen upon the human population with numerous cases of West Nile fever and a relatively higher mortality rate than in previous outbreaks. The emergence of WNV lineage 2 in Europe, its over-wintering and subsequent spread over large distances illustrates the repeated threat of emerging mosquito-borne diseases. This article will review the emergence of WNV lineage 2 in Europe; consider the pathways for virus spread and the public health implications for the continent.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luis M Hernández-Triana
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency , Addlestone , UK
| | - Claire L Jeffries
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency , Addlestone , UK
| | - Karen L Mansfield
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency , Addlestone , UK
| | - George Carnell
- London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine , London , UK
| | - Anthony R Fooks
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency , Addlestone , UK ; Department of Clinical Infection, University of Liverpool , Liverpool , UK
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Wildlife Zoonoses and Vector-Borne Diseases Research Group, Animal and Plant Health Agency , Addlestone , UK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Papa A, Papadopoulou E, Kalaitzopoulou S, Tsioka K, Mourelatos S. Detection of West Nile virus and insect-specific flavivirus RNA in Culex mosquitoes, central Macedonia, Greece. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 2014; 108:555-9. [DOI: 10.1093/trstmh/tru100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
|
18
|
Börstler J, Lühken R, Rudolf M, Steinke S, Melaun C, Becker S, Garms R, Krüger A. The use of morphometric wing characters to discriminate female Culex pipiens and Culex torrentium. JOURNAL OF VECTOR ECOLOGY : JOURNAL OF THE SOCIETY FOR VECTOR ECOLOGY 2014; 39:204-212. [PMID: 24820574 DOI: 10.1111/j.1948-7134.2014.12088.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 01/26/2014] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
The reliability of the length of wing radial vein r(2/3) as a character for the morphological discrimination of the two potential arbovirus vectors Culex pipiens s.s. and Cx. torrentium from Germany was reassessed, after this character had been neglected for more than 40 years. Additionally, multivariate morphometric analyses were applied to evaluate wing shape variation between both species. Although high-throughput molecular tools are now available to differentiate the two species, a simple, low-cost routine alternative may be useful in the absence of a molecular laboratory, such as under semi-field conditions. A thin-plate splines transformation confirmed that primarily the shrinkage of vein r(2/3) is responsible for the wing differences between the two species. In the bivariate analysis, the r(2/3)/r3 indices of Cx. pipiens s.s. and Cx. torrentium were 0.185 and 0.289, respectively, resulting in a correct classification of more than 91% of all tested specimens. Using the absolute length of vein r(2/3) alone still allowed for more than 90% accurate discrimination. Furthermore, classification accuracy of linear discriminant analysis exceeded 97%.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Jessica Börstler
- Section Parasitology, Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Bernhard-Nocht-Str. 74, 20359 Hamburg, Germany
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Pervanidou D, Detsis M, Danis K, Mellou K, Papanikolaou E, Terzaki I, Baka A, Veneti L, Vakali A, Dougas G, Politis C, Stamoulis K, Tsiodras S, Georgakopoulou T, Papa A, Tsakris A, Kremastinou J, Hadjichristodoulou C. West Nile virus outbreak in humans, Greece, 2012: third consecutive year of local transmission. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 19. [PMID: 24721540 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es2014.19.13.20758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Binary file ES_Abstracts_Final_ECDC.txt matches
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- D Pervanidou
- Hellenic Center for Disease Control & Prevention, Athens, Greece
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Marka A, Diamantidis A, Papa A, Valiakos G, Chaintoutis SC, Doukas D, Tserkezou P, Giannakopoulos A, Papaspyropoulos K, Patsoula E, Badieritakis E, Baka A, Tseroni M, Pervanidou D, Papadopoulos NT, Koliopoulos G, Tontis D, Dovas CI, Billinis C, Tsakris A, Kremastinou J, Hadjichristodoulou C. West Nile virus state of the art report of MALWEST Project. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:6534-610. [PMID: 24317379 PMCID: PMC3881129 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10126534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2013] [Revised: 11/11/2013] [Accepted: 11/12/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
During the last three years Greece is experiencing the emergence of West Nile virus (WNV) epidemics. Within this framework, an integrated surveillance and control programme (MALWEST project) with thirteen associate partners was launched aiming to investigate the disease and suggest appropriate interventions. One out of seven work packages of the project is dedicated to the State of the Art report for WNV. Three expert working groups on humans, animals and mosquitoes were established. Medical databases (PubMed, Scopus) were searched together with websites: e.g., WHO, CDC, ECDC. In total, 1,092 relevant articles were initially identified and 258 of them were finally included as references regarding the current knowledge about WNV, along with 36 additional sources (conference papers, reports, book chapters). The review is divided in three sections according to the fields of interest: (1) WNV in humans (epidemiology, molecular characteristics, transmission, diagnosis, treatment, prevention, surveillance); (2) WNV in animals (epidemiological and transmission characteristics concerning birds, horses, reptiles and other animal species) and (3) WNV in mosquitoes (control, surveillance). Finally, some examples of integrated surveillance programmes are presented. The introduction and establishment of the disease in Greece and other European countries further emphasizes the need for thorough research and broadening of our knowledge on this viral pathogen.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andriani Marka
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Athens, Athens 11527, Greece; E-mail:
| | - Alexandros Diamantidis
- Laboratory of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Volos 38446, Greece; E-mails: (A.D.); (N.T.P.)
| | - Anna Papa
- National Reference Center for Arboviruses, Department of Microbiology, School of Medicine, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-mail:
| | - George Valiakos
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Serafeim C. Chaintoutis
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-mails: (S.C.C.); (C.I.D.)
| | - Dimitrios Doukas
- Laboratory of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (D.D.); (D.T.)
| | - Persefoni Tserkezou
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Athens, Athens 11527, Greece; E-mail:
| | - Alexios Giannakopoulos
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Konstantinos Papaspyropoulos
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Eleni Patsoula
- Department of Parasitology, Entomology and Tropical Diseases, National School of Public Health, Athens 11521, Greece; E-mail:
| | - Evangelos Badieritakis
- Laboratory of Biological Control of Pesticides, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, Athens 14561, Greece; E-mails: (E.B.); (G.K.)
| | - Agoritsa Baka
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | - Maria Tseroni
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | - Danai Pervanidou
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | - Nikos T. Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Entomology and Agricultural Zoology, School of Agricultural Sciences, University of Thessaly, Volos 38446, Greece; E-mails: (A.D.); (N.T.P.)
| | - George Koliopoulos
- Laboratory of Biological Control of Pesticides, Benaki Phytopathological Institute, Athens 14561, Greece; E-mails: (E.B.); (G.K.)
| | - Dimitrios Tontis
- Laboratory of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (D.D.); (D.T.)
| | - Chrysostomos I. Dovas
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, School of Veterinary Medicine, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-mails: (S.C.C.); (C.I.D.)
| | - Charalambos Billinis
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa 43100, Greece; E-mails: (G.V); (A.G.); (K.P.); (C.B.)
| | - Athanassios Tsakris
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +30-2410-565-007; Fax: +30-2410-565-051
| | - Jenny Kremastinou
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens 15123, Greece; E-mails: (A.B.); (M.T.); (D.P.); (J.K.)
| | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Ladbury GAF, Gavana M, Danis K, Papa A, Papamichail D, Mourelatos S, Gewehr S, Theocharopoulos G, Bonovas S, Benos A, Panagiotopoulos T. Population seroprevalence study after a West Nile virus lineage 2 epidemic, Greece, 2010. PLoS One 2013; 8:e80432. [PMID: 24260390 PMCID: PMC3832368 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0080432] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2013] [Accepted: 10/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction During summer 2010, 262 human cases including 35 deaths from West Nile virus (WNV) infection were reported from Central Macedonia, Greece. Evidence from mosquitoes, birds and blood donors demonstrated that the epidemic was caused by WNV lineage 2, which until recently was considered of low virulence. We conducted a household seroprevalence study to estimate the spread of infection in the population during the epidemic, ascertain the relationship of infection to clinical disease, and identify risk factors for infection. Methods We used a two-stage cluster design to select a random sample of residents aged ≥18 years in the outbreak epicentre. We collected demographic, medical, and risk factor data using standard questionnaires and environmental checklists, and tested serum samples for presence of WNV IgG and IgM antibodies using ELISA. Results Overall, 723 individuals participated in the study, and 644 blood samples were available. Weighted seropositivity for IgG antibodies was 5.8% (95% CI: 3.8–8.6; n=41). We estimated that about 1 in 130 (1:141 to 1:124) infected individuals developed WNV neuroinvasive disease, and approximately 18% had clinical manifestations attributable to their infection. Risk factors for infection reflected high exposure to mosquitoes; rural residents were particularly at risk (prevalence ratio: 8.2, 95% CI: 1.1–58.7). Discussion This study adds to the evidence that WNV lineage 2 strains can cause significant illness, demonstrating ratios of infection to clinical disease similar to those found previously for WNV lineage 1.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Georgia A. F. Ladbury
- European Programme for Intervention Epidemiology Training (EPIET), European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (ECDC), Stockholm, Sweden
- Dutch National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Bilthoven, The Netherlands
| | - Magda Gavana
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Kostas Danis
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens, Greece
- National School of Public Health, Athens, Greece
- * E-mail:
| | - Anna Papa
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | | | | | | | | - Stefanos Bonovas
- Hellenic Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (KEELPNO), Athens, Greece
| | - Alexis Benos
- Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Engler O, Savini G, Papa A, Figuerola J, Groschup MH, Kampen H, Medlock J, Vaux A, Wilson AJ, Werner D, Jöst H, Goffredo M, Capelli G, Federici V, Tonolla M, Patocchi N, Flacio E, Portmann J, Rossi-Pedruzzi A, Mourelatos S, Ruiz S, Vázquez A, Calzolari M, Bonilauri P, Dottori M, Schaffner F, Mathis A, Johnson N. European surveillance for West Nile virus in mosquito populations. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2013; 10:4869-95. [PMID: 24157510 PMCID: PMC3823308 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph10104869] [Citation(s) in RCA: 107] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2013] [Revised: 09/20/2013] [Accepted: 09/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
A wide range of arthropod-borne viruses threaten both human and animal health either through their presence in Europe or through risk of introduction. Prominent among these is West Nile virus (WNV), primarily an avian virus, which has caused multiple outbreaks associated with human and equine mortality. Endemic outbreaks of West Nile fever have been reported in Italy, Greece, France, Romania, Hungary, Russia and Spain, with further spread expected. Most outbreaks in Western Europe have been due to infection with WNV Lineage 1. In Eastern Europe WNV Lineage 2 has been responsible for human and bird mortality, particularly in Greece, which has experienced extensive outbreaks over three consecutive years. Italy has experienced co-circulation with both virus lineages. The ability to manage this threat in a cost-effective way is dependent on early detection. Targeted surveillance for pathogens within mosquito populations offers the ability to detect viruses prior to their emergence in livestock, equine species or human populations. In addition, it can establish a baseline of mosquito-borne virus activity and allow monitoring of change to this over time. Early detection offers the opportunity to raise disease awareness, initiate vector control and preventative vaccination, now available for horses, and encourage personal protection against mosquito bites. This would have major benefits through financial savings and reduction in equid morbidity/mortality. However, effective surveillance that predicts virus outbreaks is challenged by a range of factors including limited resources, variation in mosquito capture rates (too few or too many), difficulties in mosquito identification, often reliant on specialist entomologists, and the sensitive, rapid detection of viruses in mosquito pools. Surveillance for WNV and other arboviruses within mosquito populations varies between European countries in the extent and focus of the surveillance. This study reviews the current status of WNV in mosquito populations across Europe and how this is informing our understanding of virus epidemiology. Key findings such as detection of virus, presence of vector species and invasive mosquito species are summarized, and some of the difficulties encountered when applying a cost-effective surveillance programme are highlighted.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Olivier Engler
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Austrasse, Spiez 3700, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.E.); (J.P.)
| | - Giovanni Savini
- Zooprofilactic Institute Abruzzo and Molise “G. Caporale”, Campo Boario, Teramo 64100, Italy; E-Mails: (G.S.); (M.G.); (V.F.)
| | - Anna Papa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54124, Greece; E-Mail:
| | - Jordi Figuerola
- Department of Wetland Ecology, Estación Biológica de Doñana, CSIC, Avda. Américo Vespucio s/n, Sevilla 41092, Spain; E-Mail:
| | - Martin H. Groschup
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Südufer 17493, Germany; E-Mails: (M.H.G.); (H.K.)
| | - Helge Kampen
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald—Insel Riems, Südufer 17493, Germany; E-Mails: (M.H.G.); (H.K.)
| | - Jolyon Medlock
- Public Health England, Medical Entomology group, MRA, Emergency Response Department, Porton Down, Salisbury SP4 0JG, UK; E-Mails: (J.M.); (A.V.)
| | - Alexander Vaux
- Public Health England, Medical Entomology group, MRA, Emergency Response Department, Porton Down, Salisbury SP4 0JG, UK; E-Mails: (J.M.); (A.V.)
| | | | - Doreen Werner
- Institute of Land Use Systems, Leibnitz Centre for Agricultural Lanscape Research (ZALF), Eberswalder Strasse 84, Müncheberg 15374, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Hanna Jöst
- German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), Partner Site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany and German Mosquito Control Association (KABS), Waldsee and Bernhard-Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg D-20359, Germany; E-Mail:
| | - Maria Goffredo
- Zooprofilactic Institute Abruzzo and Molise “G. Caporale”, Campo Boario, Teramo 64100, Italy; E-Mails: (G.S.); (M.G.); (V.F.)
| | - Gioia Capelli
- Zooprofilactic Institute Venezie, Viale dell’ Università, 10, Padua, 35020 Legnaro, Italy; E-Mail:
| | - Valentina Federici
- Zooprofilactic Institute Abruzzo and Molise “G. Caporale”, Campo Boario, Teramo 64100, Italy; E-Mails: (G.S.); (M.G.); (V.F.)
| | - Mauro Tonolla
- Institute of Microbiology, Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Via Mirasole 22a, Bellinzona CH-6500, Switzerland; E-Mail:
| | - Nicola Patocchi
- Mosquito Working Group, via al Castello, Canobbio CH-6952, Switzerland; E-Mails: (N.P.); (E.F.); (A.R.-P.)
| | - Eleonora Flacio
- Mosquito Working Group, via al Castello, Canobbio CH-6952, Switzerland; E-Mails: (N.P.); (E.F.); (A.R.-P.)
| | - Jasmine Portmann
- Spiez Laboratory, Federal Office for Civil Protection, Austrasse, Spiez 3700, Switzerland; E-Mails: (O.E.); (J.P.)
| | - Anya Rossi-Pedruzzi
- Mosquito Working Group, via al Castello, Canobbio CH-6952, Switzerland; E-Mails: (N.P.); (E.F.); (A.R.-P.)
| | | | - Santiago Ruiz
- Servicio de Control de Mosquitos, Diputación Provincial de Huelva, Huelva E-21003, Spain; E-Mail:
| | - Ana Vázquez
- CNM-Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Majadahonda, Madrid 28220, Spain; E-Mail:
| | - Mattia Calzolari
- Zooprofilactic Institute Lombardy and Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, Brescia 25124, Italy; E-Mails: (M.C.); (P.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Paolo Bonilauri
- Zooprofilactic Institute Lombardy and Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, Brescia 25124, Italy; E-Mails: (M.C.); (P.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Michele Dottori
- Zooprofilactic Institute Lombardy and Emilia Romagna “B. Ubertini”, Brescia 25124, Italy; E-Mails: (M.C.); (P.B.); (M.D.)
| | - Francis Schaffner
- Institute of Parasitology, National Centre for Vector Entomology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstr 266a, Zurich 8057, Switzerland; E-Mails: (F.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Alexander Mathis
- Institute of Parasitology, National Centre for Vector Entomology, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstr 266a, Zurich 8057, Switzerland; E-Mails: (F.S.); (A.M.)
| | - Nicholas Johnson
- Animal Health and Veterinary Laboratories Agency, Woodham Lane, Surrey KT15, 3NB, UK
- Author to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mail: ; Tel.: +44-(0)1932-357-937; Fax: +44-(0)1932-357-239
| |
Collapse
|
23
|
Barzon L, Papa A, Pacenti M, Franchin E, Lavezzo E, Squarzon L, Masi G, Martello T, Testa T, Cusinato R, Palù G. Genome sequencing of West Nile Virus from human cases in Greece, 2012. Viruses 2013; 5:2311-9. [PMID: 24064795 PMCID: PMC3798904 DOI: 10.3390/v5092311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2013] [Revised: 09/18/2013] [Accepted: 09/20/2013] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
A West Nile Virus (WNV) lineage 2 strain, named Nea Santa-Greece-2010, has been demonstrated to be responsible for the large outbreaks of neuroinvasive disease (WNND) that have been occurring in Greece since 2010, based on sequence similarities of viral isolates identified between 2010–2012. However, knowledge on the evolution of this strain is scarce because only partial WNV genome sequences are available from Greece. The aim of this study was to get the complete genome sequence of WNV from patients with infection. To this aim, plasma and urine samples collected during the 2012 Greek outbreak were retrospectively investigated. Full WNV genome sequence was obtained from a patient with WNND. The genome had 99.7% sequence identity to Nea Santa, higher than to other related WNV lineage 2 strains, and five amino acid changes apparently not relevant for viral pathogenicity or fitness. In addition, infection by WNV lineage 2 was confirmed in additional nine patients with WNND; in three of them the infection with WNV Nea Santa was demonstrated by sequencing. In conclusion, this study characterized for the first time a WNV full genome from a patient with WNND from Greece, demonstrated the persistence of the Nea Santa strain, and suggested that the virus might have locally evolved.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Luisa Barzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (R.C.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (L.B.); (G.P.); Tel.: +39-049-821-8946 (L.B.); +39-049-827-2350 (G.P.); Fax: +39-049-827-2355 (L.B.); +39-049-827-2355 (G.P.)
| | - Anna Papa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54621, Greece; E-Mails: (A.P.); (T.T.)
| | - Monia Pacenti
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (R.C.)
| | - Elisa Franchin
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (R.C.)
| | - Enrico Lavezzo
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
| | - Laura Squarzon
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
| | - Giulia Masi
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
| | - Thomas Martello
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
| | - Theodolinta Testa
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki 54621, Greece; E-Mails: (A.P.); (T.T.)
| | - Riccardo Cusinato
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (R.C.)
| | - Giorgio Palù
- Department of Molecular Medicine, University of Padova, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (L.B.); (E.F.); (E.L.); (L.S.); (G.M.); (T.M.)
- Microbiology and Virology Unit, Padova University Hospital, 35122 Padova, Italy; E-Mails: (M.P.); (R.C.)
- Authors to whom correspondence should be addressed; E-Mails: (L.B.); (G.P.); Tel.: +39-049-821-8946 (L.B.); +39-049-827-2350 (G.P.); Fax: +39-049-827-2355 (L.B.); +39-049-827-2355 (G.P.)
| |
Collapse
|