Therapeutic efficacy of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles encapsulated ivermectin (nano-ivermectin) against brugian filariasis in experimental rodent model

In vivo efficacy of silver nanoparticles against Syphacia muris infected laboratory Wistar rats

Helminth infections are a worldwide problem that affects both humans and animals in developing countries. The common pinworm Syphacia muris frequently infects lab rats and can obstruct the creation of unrelated biological experiments. The objective of this study was to examine the in vivo efficacy of silver nanoparticles against S. muris infected Wistar rats. Transmission electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction examinations of silver nanoparticles revealed highly pure polycrystals with a mean size of 4 nm. Rats were divided into group I, the control: received distilled water; groups II and III, the treated: received 2, 4 mg/kg b.w. of Ag NPs, respectively. At the end of the experimental period, all rats were euthanized and dissected for collecting worms. The surface topography of the recovered worms was displayed using light and scanning electron microscopy, and their physiological status was determined using oxidative stress biomarkers. The histological changes in the rat liver, kidney, and spleen were also examined. In the current study, Ag NPs administration revealed substantial alterations in worms collected from treated rats, including shrinkage of lips, peeling and rupture of body cuticles, and disruption of surface annulations. Also, induced a significant increase in malondialdehyde and nitric oxide levels, as well as a decrease in reduced glutathione, glutathione peroxidase and catalase levels compared to control group. Moreover, sections of treated rats' liver, kidney and spleen displayed normal cellular appearance. In conclusion, this is the first in vivo study to evaluate Ag NPs efficacy against S. muris in laboratory rats without significant toxicity.

Challenges and Prospective of Enhancing Hydatid Cyst Chemotherapy by Nanotechnology and the Future of Nanobiosensors for Diagnosis

Hydatid cysts have been widely recognized for decades as a common medical problem that affects millions of people. A revolution in medical treatment may be on the prospect of nanotechnology enhancing chemotherapy against hydatid cysts. An overview of nanotechnology's impact on chemotherapeutics is presented in the current review. It discusses some of the challenges as well as some of the opportunities. The application of nanotechnology to enhance chemotherapy against hydatid cysts is what this review will explore. Nanotechnology is a critical component of delivering therapeutic agents with greater precision and efficiency and targeting hydatid cysts with better efficacy, and minimizing interference with surrounding tissue. However, there are biodistribution challenges, toxicity, and resistance problems associated with nanotherapeutics. Additionally, nanobiosensors are being investigated to enable the early diagnosis of hydatid cysts. A nanobiosensor can detect hydatid cysts by catching them early, non-invasively, rapidly, and accurately. The sensitivity and specificity of diagnostic tests can be enhanced with nanobiosensors because they take advantage of the unique properties of nanomaterials. By providing more precise and customized treatment options for hydatid cysts, nanotechnology may improve therapeutic options and strategies for diagnosing the disease. In conclusion, treatment with nanotechnology to treat hydatid cysts is potentially effective but presents many obstacles. Furthermore, nanobiosensors are being integrated into diagnostic techniques, as well as helping to diagnose patients earlier and more accurately.

Battle of the milky way: Lymphatic targeted drug delivery for pathogen eradication

Many viruses, bacteria, and parasites rely on the lymphatic system for survival, replication, and dissemination. While conventional anti-infectives can combat infection-causing agents in the bloodstream, they do not reach the lymphatic system to eradicate the pathogens harboured there. This can result in ineffective drug exposure and reduce treatment effectiveness. By developing effective lymphatic delivery strategies for antiviral, antibacterial, and antiparasitic drugs, their systemic pharmacokinetics may be improved, as would their ability to reach their target pathogens within the lymphatics, thereby improving clinical outcomes in a variety of acute and chronic infections with lymphatic involvement (e.g., acquired immunodeficiency syndrome, tuberculosis, and filariasis). Here, we discuss approaches to targeting anti-infective drugs to the intestinal and dermal lymphatics, aiming to eliminate pathogen reservoirs and interfere with their survival and reproduction inside the lymphatic system. These include optimized lipophilic prodrugs and drug delivery systems that promote lymphatic transport after oral and dermal drug intake. For intestinal lymphatic delivery via the chylomicron pathway, molecules should have logP values >5 and long-chain triglyceride solubilities >50 mg/g, and for dermal lymphatic delivery via interstitial lymphatic drainage, nanoparticle formulations with particle size between 10 and 100 nm are generally preferred. Insight from this review may promote new and improved therapeutic solutions for pathogen eradication and combating infective diseases, as lymphatic system involvement in pathogen dissemination and drug resistance has been neglected compared to other pathways leading to treatment failure.

Ameliorating the antiparasitic activity of the multifaceted drug ivermectin through a polymer nanocapsule formulation

Ivermectin (IVM) is a potent antiparasitic widely used in human and veterinary medicine. However, the low oral bioavailability of IVM restricts its therapeutic potential in many parasitic infections, highlighting the need for novel formulation approaches. In this study, poly(ε-caprolactone) (PCL) nanocapsules containing IVM were successfully developed using the nanoprecipitation method. Pumpkin seed oil (PSO) was used as an oily core in the developed nanocapsules. Previously, PSO was chemically analyzed by headspace solid-phase microextraction coupled to gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (HS-SPME/GC-MS). The solubility of IVM in PSO was found to be 4,266.5 ± 38.6 μg/mL. In addition, the partition coefficient of IVM in PSO/water presented a logP of 2.44. A number of nanocapsule batches were produced by factorial design resulting in an optimized formulation. Negatively charged nanocapsules measuring around 400 nm demonstrated unimodal size distribution, and presented regular spherical morphology under transmission electron microscopy. High encapsulation efficiency (98-100%) was determined by HPLC. IVM-loaded capsules were found to be stable in nanosuspensions at 4°C and 25°C, with no significant variations in particle size observed over a period of 150 days. Nanoencapsulated IVM (0.3 mM) presented reduced toxicity to J774 macrophages and L929 fibroblasts compared to free IVM. Moreover, IVM-loaded nanocapsules also demonstrated enhanced in vitro anthelmintic activity against Strongyloides venezuelensis in comparison to free IVM. Collectively, the present findings demonstrate the promising potential of PCL-PSO nanocapsules to improve the antiparasitic effects exerted by IVM.

Ivermectin: recent approaches in the design of novel veterinary and human medicines

Ivermectin (IVM) is a drug widely used in veterinary and human medicine for the management of parasitic diseases. Its repositioning potential has been recently considered for the treatment of different diseases, such as cancer and viral infections. However, IVM faces some limitations to its formulations due to its low water solubility and bioavailability, along with reports of drug resistance. In this sense, novel technological approaches have been explored to optimize its formulations and/or to develop innovative medicines. Therefore, this review discusses the strategies proposed in the last decade to improve the safety and efficacy of IVM and to explore its novel therapeutic applications. Among these technologies, the use of micro/nano-drug delivery systems is the most used approach, followed by long-acting formulations. In general, the development of these novel formulations seems to run side by side in veterinary and human health, showing a shared interface between the two areas. Although the technologies proposed indicate a promising future in the development of innovative dosage forms containing IVM, its safety and therapeutic targets must be further evaluated. Overall, these approaches comprise tailoring drug delivery profiles, decreasing the risks of developing drug resistance, and supporting the application of IVM for reaching different therapeutic targets.

Road map to the treatment of neglected tropical diseases: Nanocarriers interventions

Neglected tropical disease (NTD) is a set of 20 deadliest endemic diseases which shows its presence in most of the developing countries worldwide. Nearly 1 billion of the population are affected by it and suffered from poverty yearly. These diseases offer their own unique challenges and limitations towards effective prevention and treatment methods. Neglected tropical diseases are severe infections they may not kill the patient but debilitate the patient by causing severe skin deformities, disfigurement and horrible risks for several infections. Existing therapies for neglected diseases suffer from the loopholes like high degree of toxicity, side effects, low bioavailability, improper targeting and problematic application for affected populations. Progress in the field of nanotechnology in last decades suggested the intervention of nanocarriers to take over and drive the research and development to the next level by incorporating established drugs into the nanocarriers rather than discovering the newer drugs which is an expensive affair. These nanocarriers are believed to be a sure shot technique to fight infections at root level by virtue of its nanosize and ability to reach at cellular level. This article highlights the recent advances, rationale, targets and the challenges that are being faced to fight against NTDs and how the novel therapy tactics are able to contribute to its importance in prevention and treatment of NTDs.

Nanotechnological Improvement of Veterinary Anthelmintics

Helminths infections are among the most important problems in animal health and husbandry. Moreover, zoonotic helminths endanger rural communities, particularly in developing countries. Helminthiasis are not only important in relation to the harmful effects of parasites; additional issues like anthelmintic resistance spread became more important over time. As new anthelmintic development takes many years and millions of dollars of investment, some strategies are currently focused on the modification of already available drugs, in order to improve their efficacy and overcome their limitations. In this field, nanotechnology has brought a novel approach, showing advantages like the regulation of the drug's delivery and kinetics, reaching of specific targets, and possibilities to avoid the systemic spread and side effects. Taking this into account, the present review aims to introduce some of the current knowledge in anthelmintic improvement based on nanotechnology, and how researchers could benefit from this technology in order to overcome the drugs limitations. Finally, some insights into potential field applications are discussed, based on the most important concerns of current anthelmintic therapy.

Ivermectin: an award-winning drug with expected antiviral activity against COVID-19

Ivermectin is an FDA-approved broad-spectrum antiparasitic agent with demonstrated antiviral activity against a number of DNA and RNA viruses, including severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2). Despite this promise, the antiviral activity of ivermectin has not been consistently proven in vivo. While ivermectin's activity against SARS-CoV-2 is currently under investigation in patients, insufficient emphasis has been placed on formulation challenges. Here, we discuss challenges surrounding the use of ivermectin in the context of coronavirus disease-19 (COVID-19) and how novel formulations employing micro- and nanotechnologies may address these concerns.

High-Throughput Synthesis and Screening of Rapidly Degrading Polyanhydride Nanoparticles

Combinatorial techniques can accelerate the discovery and development of polymeric nanodelivery devices by pairing high-throughput synthesis with rapid materials characterization. Biodegradable polyanhydrides demonstrate tunable release, high cellular internalization, and dose sparing properties when used as nanodelivery devices. This nanoparticle platform shows promising potential for small molecule drug delivery, but the pace of understanding and rational design of these nanomedicines is limited by the low throughput of conventional characterization. This study reports the use of a high-throughput method to synthesize libraries of a newly synthesized, rapidly eroding polyanhydride copolymer based on 1,8-bis(p-carboxyphenoxy)-3,6-dioxaoctane (CPTEG) and sebacic acid (SA) monomers. The high-throughput method enabled efficient screening of copolymer microstructure, revealing weak block-type and alternating architectures. The high-throughput method was adapted to synthesize nanoparticle libraries encapsulating hydrophobic model drugs. Drug release from these nanoparticles was rapid, with a majority of the payload released within 3 days. Drug release was dramatically slowed at acidic pH, which could be useful for oral drug delivery. Rhodamine B (RhoB) release kinetics generally followed patterns of polymer erosion kinetics, while Coomassie brilliant blue (CBB) released the fastest from the slowest degrading polymer chemistry and vice versa. These differences in trends between copolymer chemistry and release kinetics were hypothesized to arise from differences in mixing thermodynamics. A high-throughput method was developed to synthesize polymer-drug film libraries and characterize mixing thermodynamics by melting point depression. Rhodamine B had a negative χ for all copolymers with <30 mol % CPTEG tested, indicating a tendency toward miscibility. By contrast, CBB χ increased, eventually becoming positive near 15:85 CPTEG:SA, with increasing CPTEG content. This indicates an increasing tendency toward phase separation in CPTEG-rich copolymers. These in vitro results screening polymer-drug interactions showed good agreement with in silico predictions from Hansen solubility parameter estimation and were able to explain the observed differences in model drug release trends.

Orally Administrable Therapeutic Synthetic Nanoparticle for Zika Virus

The spread of Zika virus (ZIKV) infection across the USA and various countries in the last three years will not only have a direct impact on the U.S. health care system but has caused international concerns as well. The ultimate impact of ZIKV infection remains to be understood. Currently, there are no therapeutic or vaccine options available to protect those infected by ZIKV. The drug ivermectin (IVM) was found to be a viable agent for the prevention of transmission of ZIKV. Ivermectin is unstable in the presence of water and does not remain in adequate concentration in the human bloodstream to be effective in treatment for ZIKV. Biodegradable nanoparticles would aid in the delivery of ivermectin by providing a high enough concentration of drug and ensuring the drug is gradually released to maintain an appropriate level in the body. The overall goal of this study was to develop and optimize an orally administrable nanoformulation of IVM which can circulate in the blood for a long period for efficient delivery. To achieve the goal, we synthesized and optimized a synthetic nanoformulation of IVM for oral use which can cross the intestinal epithelial barrier to enter the bloodstream. Our studies documented that when delivered with the synthetic nanoparticle (NP), IVM can be accumulated in the blood at a higher concentration and preliminary studies highlighted that NP delivered IVM has the ability to target nonstructural 1 protein of ZIKV. For potential clinical relevance, long-term storable formulation of IVM-nanoparticle in dry powder state for inclusion in a capsule form and cryoprotectant containing frozen forms revealed promising findings. Further, our preliminary in vitro studies documented that ivermectin crosses the placental barrier, thus making it unsafe for the pregnant ZIKV population, whereas the ivermectin-loaded nanoparticle did not show any significant placental barrier crossing, thus indicating its potential suitability for such population. We envision that this work will fill a great unmet need by developing safer and more effective therapies for the treatment of viral infections, including ZIKV.

Ivermectin: From theory to clinical application

Approximately 250 million people have been using ivermectin (IVM) annually to combat many parasitic diseases including filariasis, onchocerciasis, strongyloidiasis, scabies and pediculosis. Many clinical studies have proven its efficacy against these diseases and have reported the optimum dose and duration of treatment. Moreover, its antiparasitic range has increased to cover more parasitic infections, but it still requires further exploration, e.g. for trichinosis and myiasis. Furthermore, IVM showed high efficacy in killing vectors of disease-causing parasites such as mosquitoes, sandflies and tsetse flies. The World Health Organization (WHO) has managed many control programmes involving the use of IVM to achieve elimination of onchocerciasis and lymphatic filariasis and to reduce malaria transmission. However, IVM is not exempt from the possibility of resistance and, certainly, its intensive use has led to the emergence of resistance in some parasites. Recent research is investigating the possibility of novel drug delivery systems for IVM that increase its potential to treat a new range of diseases and to overcome the possibility of drug resistance. This review highlights the most common human uses of IVM, with special reference to the new and promising properties of IVM.

Efficiency of flubendazole-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles: A promising formulation against the protoscoleces and cysts of Echinococcus granulosus

None of the existing drugs can effectively treat the human cystic echinococcosis. This study aimed to improve the efficacy of flubendazole (FLBZ) against the protoscoleces and cysts of Echinococcus granulosus by preparing polymeric FLBZ-loaded methoxy polyethylene glycol-polycaprolactone (mPEG-PCL) nanoparticles. The protoscoleces and microcysts were treated with FLBZ-loaded mPEG-PCL nanoparticles (FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles) and free FLBZ at the final concentrations of 1, 5, and 10 μg/mL for 27 and 14 days, respectively. The chemoprophylactic efficacy of the drugs was evaluated in experimentally infected mice. The nanoparticles were stable for 1 month, with an average size of 101.41 ± 5.14 nm and a zeta potential of -19.13 ± 2.56 mV. The drug-loading and entrapment efficiency of the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles were calculated to be 3.08 ± 0.15% and 89.16 ± 2.93%, respectively. The incubation of the protoscoleces with the 10 μg/mL nano-formulation for 15 days resulted in 100% mortality, while after incubation with the 10 μg/mL free FLBZ, the viability rate of the protoscoleces was only 44.0% ± 5.22%. Destruction of the microcysts was observed after 7 days' exposure to the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles at a concentration of 10 μg/mL. The in vivo challenge showed a significant reduction in the weight and number of the cysts (P <  0.05) in the mice treated with the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles, yielding efficacy rates of 94.64% and 70.21%, correspondingly. Transmission electron microscopy revealed extensive ultrastructural damage to the cysts treated with the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles. The results indicated that the FLBZ-loaded nanoparticles were more effective than the free FLBZ against the protoscoleces and cysts of E. granulosus both in vitro and in vivo.

Combination drug therapy via nanocarriers against infectious diseases

Current drug therapy against infections is threatening to become obsolete due to the poor physical, chemical, biological and pharmacokinetic properties of drugs, followed by high risk of acquiring resistance. Taking into account the significant benefits of nanotechnology, nano-based delivery of anti-infectious agents is emerging as a potential approach to combat several lethal infections. Co-delivery of multiple anti-infectious agents in a single nano-based system is beginning to show significant advantages over mono-therapy, such as synergism, enhanced anti-microbial activity, broad anti-microbial spectrum, reduced resistance development, and improved and cost-effective treatment. The current review provides a detailed update on the status of various lipid and polymer based nano-systems used to co-deliver multiple anti-infectious agents against bacterial, HIV and malarial infections. It also identifies current key challenges and suggests strategies to overcome them, thus guiding formulation scientists to further optimize nano-based co-drug delivery as an approach to fight infections effectively.

In vitro ovicidal activity of poly lactic acid curcumin-nisin co-entrapped nanoparticle against Fasciola spp. eggs and its reproductive toxicity

BACKGROUND

Curcumin and nisin have been widely reported for their antibacterial and anticancer potency. However, their therapeutic applications are hampered by several factors, which necessitate their development into nanosize ranges for improved delivery and activities. Their incorporation into a single nanosynthesized form may suggest desirable efficacy on parasites. The aim of the study was to assess the ovicidal activity of the curcumin-nisin polylactic acid (PLA) entrapped nanoparticle on the Fasciola eggs and its reproductive toxicity.

METHODS

The nanoparticle was formulated by double emulsion method. The eggs of the adult Fasciola spp. were exposed to different concentrations (0.3125-5 mg/mL) of the nanoparticle to monitor hatchability. Mice were exposed to 0.5 mL of the formulated drug at varying concentrations (10-20 mg/kg) and then sacrificed for sperm morphology assay.

RESULTS

The mean particle size, polydispersity index, and drug entrapment efficiency of the formulated drug were 288.4±24.3 nm, 0.232, and 51.7%, respectively. The highest nanoparticulate concentration (5 mg/mL) showed the least percentage egg hatching (41.7%) compared with the other treatment groups and positive control (albendazole) (45.1%). The aberrations observed in sperm cells were not concentration-dependent and no significant differences were observed in the mean aberrations between the nanoparticulate drug-exposed groups and the negative control (p>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The results confirmed the ovicidal activity of the curcumin-nisin nanoparticulate drug against the Fasciola species. The formulation also showed no toxicity to sperm cells. More robust studies on anti-fascioliasis activity of the drug on adult Fasciola spp. and in vivo and in vitro toxicity studies are recommended.

Nanomedicine Approaches Against Parasitic Worm Infections

Nanomedicine approaches have the potential to transform the battle against parasitic worm (helminth) infections, a major global health scourge from which billions are currently suffering. It is anticipated that the intersection of two currently disparate fields, nanomedicine and helminth biology, will constitute a new frontier in science and technology. This progress report surveys current innovations in these research fields and discusses research opportunities. In particular, the focus is on: (1) major challenges that helminth infections impose on mankind; (2) key aspects of helminth biology that inform future research directions; (3) efforts to construct nanodelivery platforms to target drugs and genes to helminths hidden in their hosts; (4) attempts in applying nanotechnology to enable vaccination against helminth infections; (5) outlooks in utilizing nanoparticles to enhance immunomodulatory activities of worm-derived factors to cure allergy and autoimmune diseases. In each section, achievements are summarized, limitations are explored, and future directions are assessed.

Nanopharmaceuticals as a solution to neglected diseases: Is it possible?

The study of neglected diseases has not received much attention, especially from public and private institutions over the last years, in terms of strong support for developing treatment for these diseases. Support in the form of substantial amounts of private and public investment is greatly needed in this area. Due to the lack of novel drugs for these diseases, nanobiotechnology has appeared as an important new breakthrough for the treatment of neglected diseases. Recently, very few reviews focusing on filiarasis, leishmaniasis, leprosy, malaria, onchocerciasis, schistosomiasis, trypanosomiasis, and tuberculosis, and dengue virus have been published. New developments in nanocarriers have made promising advances in the treatment of several kinds of diseases with less toxicity, high efficacy and improved bioavailability of drugs with extended release and fewer applications. This review deals with the current status of nanobiotechnology in the treatment of neglected diseases and highlights how it provides key tools for exploring new perspectives in the treatment of a wide range of diseases.

Nano-enabled delivery of diverse payloads across complex biological barriers

Complex biological barriers are major obstacles for preventing and treating disease. Nanocarriers are designed to overcome such obstacles by enhancing drug delivery through physiochemical barriers and improving therapeutic indices. This review critically examines both biological barriers and nanocarrier payloads for a variety of drug delivery applications. A spectrum of nanocarriers is discussed that have been successfully developed for improving tissue penetration for preventing or treating a range of infectious, inflammatory, and degenerative diseases.

Anthelmintic Effect of Biocompatible Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) on Gigantocotyle explanatum, a Neglected Parasite of Indian Water Buffalo

Helminth parasites of veterinary importance cause huge revenue losses to agrarian economy worldwide. With the emergence of drug resistance against the current formulations, there is a need to focus on the alternative approaches in order to control this menace. In the present study, biocompatible zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) were used to see their in vitro effect on the biliary amphistomes, Gigantocotyle explanatum, infecting Bubalus bubalis because these nanoparticles are involved in generation of free radicals that induce oxidative stress, resulting in disruption of cellular machinery. The ZnO NPs were synthesized by using egg albumin as a biotemplate and subsequently characterized by Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), X-ray Diffraction and Spectrophotometrical, which showed that ZnO NPs were highly purified wurtzite type polycrystals, with a mean size of 16.7 nm. When the parasites were treated with lower concentrations (0.004% and 0.008%) of the ZnO NPs, the worms mounted a protective response by stimulating the antioxidant system but the treatment of G. explanatum with 0.012% ZnO NPs produced significant inhibition of the antioxidant enzymes like superoxide dismutase (SOD) (p< 0.05) and glutathione S- transferase (GST) (p<0.01), while the level of malondialdehyde (MDA), a lipid peroxidation marker, was significantly (p< 0.01) elevated. SEM and histopathology revealed pronounced tegumental damage showing the disruption of surface papillae and the annulations, particularly in the posterior region near acetabulum. The under expression of a number of polypeptides, loss of worm motility in a time dependent manner, further reflect strong anthelmintic potential of ZnO NPs. It can be concluded that the anthelmintic effect might be due to the production of reactive oxygen species that target a variety of macromolecules such as nucleic acid, protein and lipids which are involved in different cellular processes.