Exposure to Anisakis extracts can induce inflammation on in vitro cultured human colonic cells

Anti-Anisakis antibodies in colon cancer patients and their relationship with γδ T-cells

Many pathogens are related to carcinogenesis. Chronic inflammation, as a result of persistent infection, leads to DNA damage, higher expression of oncogenes, decreased apoptosis and immunosuppression, which are some of the reasons for cancer induction. Among parasites, Schistosoma, Opistorchis and Clonorchis are recognised as infectious agents which contribute to cancer. A relationship between Anisakis and cancer was hypothesised because cellular responses to Anisakis products could result in inflammation and DNA damage. Previous research has shown a decrease in CD8+ γδ T-cells and an increase in αβ and γδ T-cell apoptosis in colon cancer (CC) samples. Ninety-two CC patients and 60 healthy subjects were recruited. γδ and αβ T-cells were analysed, and their apoptosis was evaluated. Anti-Anisakis antibodies were tested in sera from CC patients and controls. Anti-Anisakis IgG, IgM, IgA and IgE antibodies were significantly higher in CC patients. A significant increase in anti-Anisakis IgA levels was observed in patients with angiolymphatic invasion. The number of all γδ T-cells, as well as CD3+ CD4+ αβ T-cells, was significantly lower in CC patients. The apoptosis of all T-cells was significantly increased in patients with CC. We observed a significantly higher percentage of anti-Anisakis IgE positive patients having a deficit of CD3+ γδ T-cells. Our results suggest a relationship between Anisakis and CC.

Cyanidin-3-O-glucoside protects intestinal epithelial cells from palmitate-induced lipotoxicity

CONTEXT

Increased free fatty acids (FFAs) levels, typical in obesity condition, can contribute to systemic lipotoxicity and inflammation adversely influencing Inflammatory Bowel Disease development and progression. Anthocyanins possess health promoting properties mainly associated to the induction of Nrf2-regulated cytoprotective proteins.

OBJECTIVE

Using a novel experimental model, we evaluated the in vitro intracellular mechanisms involved in FFAs modulation of intestinal epithelial lipotoxicity and the protective effects of cyanidin-3-O-glucoside (C3G) in Caco-2 cells.

RESULTS

Caco-2 exposed to palmitic acid (PA) in the serosal (basolateral) side showed a combined state of epithelial inflammation, inducing NF-κB pathway and downstream cytokines, that was reverted by C3G apical pre-treatment. In addition, PA altered intracellular redox status and induced reactive oxygen species that were reduced by C3G via the redox-sensitive Nrf2 signalling.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

Results suggest that anti-inflammatory properties of anthocyanins, mediated by Nrf2, could represent an interesting tool for intestinal inflammatory disorders.

Inflammatory Response in Caco-2 Cells Stimulated with Anisakis Messengers of Pathogenicity

Background: Anisakis spp. third-stage larvae (L3) are the causative agents of human zoonosis called anisakiasis. The accidental ingestion of L3 can cause acute and chronic inflammation at the gastric, intestinal, or ectopic levels. Despite its relevance in public health, studies on pathogenetic mechanisms and parasite-human interplay are scarce. The aim of this study was to investigate the human inflammatory response to different Anisakis vehicles of pathogenicity. Methods: Human colorectal adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells were exposed to Anisakis L3 (the initial contact with the host), extracellular vesicles (EVs, Anisakis-host communication), and crude extract (CE, the larval dying). The protein quantity and gene expression of two pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-6 and IL-8) were investigated using an ELISA test (6 h and 24 h) and a qReal-Time PCR (1 h, 6 h, and 24 h), respectively. Results: The L3 and EVs induced a downregulation in both the Il-6 and Il-8 gene expression and protein quantity. On the contrary, the CE stimulated IL-6 gene expression and its protein release, not affecting IL-8. Conclusions: The Caco-2 cells seemed to not react to the exposure to the L3 and EVs, suggesting a parasite's immunomodulating action to remain alive in an inhospitable niche. Conversely, the dying larva (CE) could induce strong activation of the immune strategy of the host that, in vivo, would lead to parasite expulsion, eosinophilia, and/or granuloma formation.

A miRNAs catalogue from third-stage larvae and extracellular vesicles of Anisakis pegreffii provides new clues for host-parasite interplay

Anisakids are widespread marine parasites of medical, veterinary and economic relevance. They infect marine natural hosts but humans can accidentally acquire the fish-borne zoonosis anisakiasis by ingesting infected raw fishes or mollusks. Among the several species described, Anisakis pegreffii is one of the main etiological agent of the disease, in particular in the Mediterranean area. Despite the growing evidence of miRNAs involvement in host-parasite interplay, and the emerging role of exosomal microvesicles in shuttling them between different cell types (and sometime across species), no information on miRNAs from any Anisakis species is presently available. In this study we isolated extracellular vesicles (EVs) released by Anisakis pegreffii infective third-stage larvae (L3) and analyzed by RNA-seq small RNAs from both L3 and EVs. We showed by nanoparticle tracking analysis that L3 release in culture medium particles of size compatible with the one of extracellular vesicles. A catalogue of 156 miRNAs from A. pegreffii was compiled by sequence comparison to evolutionary close species and miRNA prediction software. Using differential expression analysis, we identified a small number of highly abundant miRNAs in larvae and extracellular vesicles fractions whose potential biological relevance may deserve future investigation. Finally, A. pegreffii miRNAs were compared to those described in other parasitic helminths and predicted targets among human genes were searched, suggesting their potential involvement during infection.

Anisakicidal Effects of R (+) Limonene: An Alternative to Freezing Treatment in the Industrial Anchovy Marinating Process

Anisakiasis is a fish-borne zoonotic disease caused by the ingestion of raw/undercooked fishes or cephalopods parasitized by members of the genus Anisakis. Freezing ensures the inactivation of viable Anisakis larvae; however, since it affects the organoleptic properties of food, essential oils and their compounds were proposed as an alternative. In this study, fresh anchovy fillets were experimentally parasitized with L3 Anisakis larvae to test the anisakicidal efficacy of R (+) limonene (LMN) in marinated fishery products. The anisakicidal effectiveness and organoleptic influence of several LMN concentrations (0.5%, 1%, and 5%) were tested during the marinating process (MS) and storage in sunflower seed oil (SO) of marinated anchovy fillets. Double treatment (DT) with 1% LMN was also performed both during marination and subsequent storage in oil. MS treatment resulted only in a reduction in larvae viability after 48 h, while a complete inactivation was observed in SO after 8, 10, and 20 days of treatment with 5%, 1%, and 0.5% LMN, respectively. DT was the most effective with complete larval inactivation after 7 days. Only 5% LMN influenced the sensory characteristics of the fillets, resulting, however, in a pleasant lemon-like odor and taste. Considering the results obtained, LMN might be a suitable natural alternative to manage Anisakis risk in the fishery industry.

What Do In Vitro and In Vivo Models Tell Us about Anisakiasis? New Tools Still to Be Explored

Anisakiasis is a zoonosis caused by the ingestion of raw or undercooked seafood infected with third-stage larvae (L3) of the marine nematode Anisakis. Based on L3 localization in human accidental hosts, gastric, intestinal or ectopic (extra-gastrointestinal) anisakiasis can occur, in association with mild to severe symptoms of an allergic nature. Given the increasing consumption of fish worldwide, the European Food Safety Authority declared Anisakis as an emerging pathogen. Despite its importance for public health and economy, the scientific literature is largely characterized by taxonomic, systematic and ecological studies, while investigations on clinical aspects, such as the inflammatory and immune response during anisakiasis, using a proper model that simulates the niche of infection are still very scarce. The aims of this review are to describe the clinical features of anisakiasis, to report the main evidence from the in vivo and in vitro studies carried out to date, highlighting limitations, and to propose future perspectives in the study field of anisakiasis.

Marinated Anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) Prepared with Flavored Olive Oils (Chétoui cv.): Anisakicidal Effect, Microbiological, and Sensory Evaluation

To meet the food demand of future generations, more sustainable food production is needed. Flavored olive oils (FOOs) have been proposed as natural additives to ensure food safety and quality through a more sustainable approach. The chemical composition and antioxidant potential of two different olive oils flavored, respectively, with cumin (Cm) and with a mixture of parsley, garlic, and lemon (Mix) were investigated. Cm-FOO and Mix-FOO were tested against Anisakis both in vitro and ex vivo through an exposure test of anchovy fillets experimentally parasitized with Anisakis larvae. Microbiological and sensory analysis were carried out on marinated anchovy fillets exposed to both FOOs to evaluate their effects on the shelf life and their sensory influence. The addition of herbs and spices did not affect the chemical composition of the olive oil (free acidity, UV absorbance, and fatty acid composition). Only Mix showed antioxidant activity, while Cm had no effect in this regard. Cm-FOO and Mix-FOO devitalized the Anisakis larvae both in vitro within 24 h and ex vivo after 8 and 10 days of exposure, respectively. The results of microbiological analyses showed that FOOs inhibited the growth of typical spoilage flora in the marinated anchovies without negatively affecting their sensory characteristics, as observed from the sensory analysis.

Anisakis spp. Larvae in Deboned, in-Oil Fillets Made of Anchovies (Engraulis encrasicolus) and Sardines (Sardina pilchardus) Sold in EU Retailers

Sardina pilchardus and Engraulis encrasicolus are considered the principal target species for commercial fishing in Europe and are widely consumed as semipreserved products. Although they are considered shelf-stable products, if treatment is not correctly applied, their consumption may represent a public health risk in regard to anisakiasis and allergic reactions. Little is known about the prevalence of Anisakis spp. in ripened products. This study aimed to evaluate the presence of Anisakis spp. larvae in deboned, in-oil anchovy and sardine fillets marketed in the EU to assess the influence of processing techniques on the prevalence of larvae. Ninety semipreserved anchovy and sardine products deriving from the Mediterranean Sea or Atlantic Ocean were collected from different EU retailers and examined using chloropeptic digestion to evaluate the presence of larvae and identify them. Thirty nonviable Anisakid larvae-A. pegreffii (30%) and A. simplex (70%)-were found. The frequency of larvae was higher in anchovies (28.8%). The low frequency of parasites found proved that processing technologies can influence the presence of larvae in final products, but it is important that visual inspection is performed only by trained people. The sources of raw materials should be considered in the production flow chart.

Advances in Omic Studies Drive Discoveries in the Biology of Anisakid Nematodes

Advancements in technologies employed in high-throughput next-generation sequencing (NGS) methods are supporting the spread of studies that, combined with advances in computational biology and bioinformatics, have greatly accelerated discoveries within basic and biomedical research for many parasitic diseases. Here, we review the most updated "omic" studies performed on anisakid nematodes, a family of marine parasites that are causative agents of the fish-borne zoonosis known as anisakiasis or anisakidosis. Few deposited data on Anisakis genomes are so far available, and this still hinders the deep and highly accurate characterization of biological aspects of interest, even as several transcriptomic and proteomic studies are becoming available. These have been aimed at discovering and characterizing molecules specific to peculiar developmental parasitic stages or tissues, as well as transcripts with pathogenic potential as toxins and allergens, with a broad relevance for a better understanding of host-pathogen relationships and for the development of reliable diagnostic tools.

Anisakis simplex products impair intestinal epithelial barrier function and occludin and zonula occludens-1 localisation in differentiated Caco-2 cells

BACKGROUND

Anisakis spp. are nematode parasites found in a wide range of marine organisms. Human beings may accidentally become infected, showing the symptoms of anisakiasis and allergic responses. There has been evidence of increased intestinal permeability in A. simplex-sensitized subjects and that specific IgE titres increase in some allergic patients when fishery products are re-introduced into their diet. The aims of this work were to study the effect of A. simplex crude extract on the intestinal integrity and permeability by using Caco-2 cell monolayer. To analyse the capacity of Ani s 4 allergen to cross the epithelial barrier.

METHODOLOGY/PRINCIPAL FINDINGS

Cellular bioenergetics, transepithelial electrical resistance, viability, permeability, reactive oxygen species generation and immunofluorescent staining of tight junction proteins were analysed. A. simplex crude extract compromises the Caco-2 cell monolayer integrity in a dose-dependent manner. This effect is detected at 1 hour of culture and integrity is recovered after 24 hours of culture. The epithelial barrier disruption is accompanied by an increase in paracellular permeability and reactive oxygen species production and by a delocalization of occludin and zonula occludens-1. Finally, Ani s 4, a thermostable and resistant to digestion allergen with cystatin activity, is able to cross the epithelial barrier in Caco-2 monolayer and reach a cumulative mean percentage of 22.7% of total concentration in the basolateral side after 24 hours of culture.

CONCLUSIONS/SIGNIFICANCE

Our results demonstrate that A. simplex induces an early and reversible alteration of integrity and permeability of Caco-2 cell monolayer and that an underlying mechanism of this effect would involve the oxidative stress and disruption of epithelial tight junctions. Additionally, it has been shown that Ani s 4 allergen is able to cross the epithelial barrier. These findings could explain the increased intestinal permeability observed in Anisakis-sensitized patients, the changes over time in IgE sensitization to A. simplex allergens, and the specific IgE persistence in Anisakis allergy.

Effectiveness of five flavored Tunisian olive oils on Anisakis larvae type 1: application of cinnamon and rosemary oil in industrial anchovy marinating process

BACKGROUND

Anisakidosis is caused by the ingestion of raw or undercooked fish or cephalopods containing viable Anisakis larvae. Several natural extracts, oils, essential oils, and their compounds have been tested against Anisakis. In this study the effectiveness of Tunisian olive oil with different spices or plants (cardamom, cinnamon, ginger, laurel, and rosemary) was tested against Anisakis larvae type 1.

RESULTS

For the in vitro test, larvae were submerged separately in the oils mentioned above and observed to check viability. Cinnamon oil was the most effective against parasites with lethal time (LT) scores being LT50  = 1.5 days and LT100  = 3 days, followed by rosemary. Laurel, cardamom, and ginger oils were less effective. For the ex vivo experiment, cinnamon, and rosemary oils were tested in anchovy fillets, previously artificially parasitized. Cinnamon was the most effective against parasites (dead after 4 days) as compared to rosemary (7 days).

CONCLUSION

The use of cinnamon and rosemary-flavored olive oil in the industrial marinating process can be considered as an efficient alternative to the freezing process required by European Regulation EC No 853/2004 to devitalize Anisakis. © 2019 Society of Chemical Industry.

Use of Tunisian flavored olive oil as anisakicidal agent in industrial anchovy marinating process

BACKGROUND

Natural compounds are more frequently used against Anisakis, responsible for the important fish-borne disease anisakidosis. The aim of the study was to evaluate the effectiveness of enriched Tunisian olive oil with different spices (cumin, turmeric, clove, thyme, and lemon) against Anisakis larvae type 1.

RESULTS

In vitro experiment: larvae were submerged separately in the aforementioned oils and then examined to check viability. For each oil, LT50 and LT100 were calculated. Turmeric and cumin oils are the most effective against the parasites; followed by lemon, thyme and clove oils. For the in vivo experiment, turmeric and cumin oils were tested in anchovy fillets previously artificially parasitized with L3 larvae. Cumin was the most effective against parasites (dead after 5 days) compared with turmeric (8 days). For the two oils, the resulting odor was pleasant, as was the taste, while changes in color were much more evident in turmeric fillets.

CONCLUSION

All the flavored oils demonstrated a good nematodical action against Anisakis. Cumin oil was the most effective against encysted larvae. Turmeric oil showed the best activity in the in vitro experiment. The use of flavored oils in the marinating process could represent an efficient strategy to devitalize Anisakis. © 2017 Society of Chemical Industry.

Parasites in Food: From a Neglected Position to an Emerging Issue

Foodborne parasites have long been a neglected group of pathogens, as they often have insidious, chronic effects, rather than being acute diseases, and they are often associated with impoverished or marginalized populations. In addition, due to the long incubation period for most foodborne parasites, source attribution is often difficult, if not impossible. However, global trends have enabled foodborne parasites to emerge in different populations in new locations, transmitted through different food types, and sometimes with unexpected symptoms. This emergence of foodborne parasites has brought them into focus. In this chapter, six foodborne parasites are used as examples on emergence: Echinococcus multilocularis is spreading to new locations; Cryptosporidium spp. are beginning to be associated not only with water, but also with salads; Trypanosoma cruzi is being manifest with acute disease due to foodborne transmission, particularly transmitted with juices; Trichinella spp. have become less of a burden regarding transmission via pork in many countries, but now game animals are becoming a concern; anisakiasis is becoming a global problem as the world develops a taste for sushi, and similarly for opisthorchiasis, which is increasingly being associated with cholangiocarcinoma. However, the emergence of these foodborne parasites provides an incentive for increased efforts being made toward control. In this chapter, having described how the parasites are emerging from their neglected position, the focus turns toward control. In addition to considering control measures that may be applied to the specific parasites, an overview is provided of some of the organized collaborations, projects, and consortia, as well as some of their outputs, that have in focus the control of these emerging and important pathogens.

Quality assessment of Zeus faber (Peter's fish) ovaries regularly commercialized for human consumption

In the last few years, the consumption of fish eggs has increased rapidly, finding widespread use also in mass catering. This increase has involved also those of the Peter's fish (Zeus faber). Females of this species, by their reproductive characteristics, have highly developed gonads in different periods of the year, making the raw material easy to find. The aim of the present study was to perform a quality assessment of Zeus faber ovaries regularly commercialized for human consumption. A total number of 34 samples, divided in fresh (11) and frozen (23), were processed for microbiological characterization, parasitological and histological evaluations. Fresh and frozen samples have significant (P<0.01) differences in total bacterial charge, with values of 4.75±0.5 Log CFU/g and 3.65±0.7 Log CFU/g respectively. The mean value of Enterobacteriaceae was 2.58±0.7 Log CFU/g in fresh products, while 52.17% (12) of frozen samples reported loads of <1 Log CFU/g. No Salmonella spp. and Listeria monocytogenes were found. Aeromonas spp. was detected in two frozen sample (with loads of 2.2 and <1 Log CFU/g) and in 5 fresh ovaries with value ranged from 1.70 to 3.48 Log CFU/g. Vibrio spp. was found in 4 (36.36%) and 3 (13.04%) of fresh and frozen samples respectively, with loads always <1 Log CFU/g. All 31 Vibrio strains isolated, were identified as Vibrio alginolyticus, and 61.29% (19) of them was positive for the ToxRS factor and 6.45% (2) for ToxR. The 47.06% (16) of total samples showed infestations by larvae of Anisakis Type 1 in the serous and inside the ovary. In this last case, histologically it was found to be free larvae. This study attested satisfactory hygiene conditions for Zeus faber ovaries currently marked for human consumption. The presence of potentially pathogenic strains of V. alginolyticus and Aeromonas spp., but above all the frequent infestation by Anisakis larvae, represent a potentially hazard for the consumer.