Ubc7/Ube2g2 ortholog in Entamoeba histolytica: connection with the plasma membrane and phagocytosis

The role of ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme in the process of spermatogenesis

The ubiquitination is crucial for controlling cellular homeostasis and protein modification, in which ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme (E2) acts as the central player in the ubiquitination system. Ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes, which have special domains that catalyse substrates, have sequence discrepancies and modulate various pathophysiological processes in different cells of multiple organisms. E2s take part in the mitosis of primordial germ cells, meiosis of spermatocytes and the formation of mature haploid spermatids to maintain normal male fertility. In this review, we summarize the various types of E2s and their functions during distinct stages of spermatogenesis.

Newsights of endoplasmic reticulum in hypoxia

The endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is important to cells because of its essential functions, including synthesizing three major nutrients and ion transport. When cellular homeostasis is disrupted, ER quality control (ERQC) system is activated effectively to remove misfolded and unfolded proteins through ER-phagy, ER-related degradation (ERAD), and molecular chaperones. When unfolded protein response (UPR) and ER stress are activated, the cell may be suffering a huge blow, and the most probable consequence is apoptosis. The membrane contact points between the ER and sub-organelles contribute to communication between the organelles. The decrease in oxygen concentration affects the morphology and structure of the ER, thereby affecting its function and further disrupting the stable state of cells, leading to the occurrence of disease. In this study, we describe the functions of ER-, ERQC-, and ER-related membrane contact points and their changes under hypoxia, which will help us further understand ER and treat ER-related diseases.

Echinococcus granulosus ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes (E2D2 and E2N) promote the formation of liver fibrosis in TGFβ1-induced LX-2 cells

BACKGROUND

Cystic echinococcosis (CE) is a widespread zoonosis caused by the infection with Echinococcus granulosus sensu lato (E. granulosus s.l.). CE cysts mainly develop in the liver of intermediate hosts, characterized by the fibrotic tissue that separates host organ from parasite. However, precise mechanism underlying the formation of fibrotic tissue in CE remains unclear.

METHODS

To investigate the potential impact of ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes on liver fibrosis formation in CE, two members of ubiquitin-conjugating (UBC) enzyme of Echinococcus granulosus (EgE2D2 and EgE2N) were recombinantly expressed in Escherichia coli and analyzed for bioinformatics, immunogenicity, localization, and enzyme activity. In addition, the secretory pathway and their effects on the formation of liver fibrosis were also explored.

RESULTS

Both rEgE2D2 and rEgE2N possess intact UBC domains and active sites, exhibiting classical ubiquitin binding activity and strong immunoreactivity. Additionally, EgE2D2 and EgE2N were widely distributed in protoscoleces and germinal layer, with differences observed in their distribution in 25-day strobilated worms. Further, these two enzymes were secreted to the hydatid fluid and CE-infected sheep liver tissues via a non-classical secretory pathway. Notably, TGFβ1-induced LX-2 cells exposed to rEgE2D2 and rEgE2N resulted in increasing expression of fibrosis-related genes, enhancing cell proliferation, and facilitating cell migration.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that EgE2D2 and EgE2N could secrete into the liver and may interact with hepatic stellate cells, thereby promoting the formation of liver fibrosis.

Encystation and Stress Responses under the Control of Ubiquitin-like Proteins in Pathogenic Amoebae

Amoebae found in aquatic and terrestrial environments encompass various pathogenic species, including the parasite Entamoeba histolytica and the free-living Acanthamoeba castellanii. Both microorganisms pose significant threats to public health, capable of inducing life-threatening effects on humans. These amoebae exist in two cellular forms: trophozoites and cysts. The trophozoite stage is the form used for growth and reproduction while the cyst stage is the resistant and disseminating form. Cysts occur after cellular metabolism slowdown due to nutritional deprivation or the appearance of environmental conditions unfavourable to the amoebae's growth and division. The initiation of encystation is accompanied by the activation of stress responses, and scarce data indicate that encystation shares factors and mechanisms identified in stress responses occurring in trophozoites exposed to toxic compounds derived from human immune defence. Although some "omics" analyses have explored how amoebae respond to diverse stresses, these studies remain limited and rarely report post-translational modifications that would provide knowledge on the molecular mechanisms underlying amoebae-specific stress responses. In this review, we discuss ubiquitin-like proteins associated with encystation and cell survival during oxidative damage. We aim to shed light on the signalling pathways involved in amoebic defence mechanisms, with a focus on their potential clinical implications against pathogenic amoebae, addressing the pressing need for effective therapies.

Dynamic Association of ESCRT-II Proteins with ESCRT-I and ESCRT-III Complexes during Phagocytosis of Entamoeba histolytica

By their active movement and voraux phagocytosis, the trophozoites of Entamoeba histolytica constitute an excellent system to investigate the dynamics of the Endosomal Sorting Complex Required for Transport (ESCRT) protein interactions through phagocytosis. Here, we studied the proteins forming the E. histolytica ESCRT-II complex and their relationship with other phagocytosis-involved molecules. Bioinformatics analysis predicted that EhVps22, EhVps25, and EhVps36 are E. histolytica bona fide orthologues of the ESCRT-II protein families. Recombinant proteins and specific antibodies revealed that ESCRT-II proteins interact with each other, with other ESCRT proteins, and phagocytosis-involved molecules, such as the adhesin (EhADH). Laser confocal microscopy, pull-down assays, and mass spectrometry analysis disclosed that during phagocytosis, ESCRT-II accompanies the red blood cells (RBCs) from their attachment to the trophozoites until their arrival to multivesicular bodies (MVBs), changing their interactive patterns according to the time and place of the process. Knocked-down trophozoites in the Ehvps25 gene presented a 50% lower rate of phagocytosis than the controls and lower efficiency to adhere RBCs. In conclusion, ESCRT-II interacts with other molecules during prey contact and conduction throughout the phagocytic channel and trophozoites membranous system. ESCRT-II proteins are members of the protein chain during vesicle trafficking and are fundamental for the continuity and efficiency of phagocytosis.

Multifunctional role of the ubiquitin proteasome pathway in phagocytosis

Phagocytosis is a specialized form of endocytosis where large cells and particles (>0.5μm) are engulfed by the phagocytic cells, and ultimately digested in the phagolysosomes. This process not only eliminates unwanted particles and pathogens from the extracellular sources, but also eliminates apoptotic cells within the body, and is critical for maintenance of tissue homeostasis. It is believed that both endocytosis and phagocytosis share common pathways after particle internalization, but specialized features and differences between these two routes of internalization are also likely. The recruitment and removal of each protein/particle during the maturation of endocytic/phagocytic vesicles has to be tightly regulated to ensure their timely action. Ubiquitin proteasome pathway (UPP), degrades unwanted proteins by post-translational modification of proteins with chains of conserved protein Ubiquitin (Ub), with subsequent recognition of Ub chains by the 26S proteasomes and substrate degradation by this protease. This pathway utilizes different Ub linkages to modify proteins to regulate protein-protein interaction, localization, and activity. Due to its vast number of targets, it is involved in many cellular pathways, including phagocytosis. This chapters describes the basic steps and signaling in phagocytosis and different roles that UPP plays at multiple steps in regulating phagocytosis directly, or through its interaction with other phagosomal proteins. How aberrations in UPP function affect phagocytosis and their association with human diseases, and how pathogens exploit this pathway for their own benefit is also discussed.

Endoplasmic Reticulum Stress, a Target for Drug Design and Drug Resistance in Parasitosis

Endoplasmic reticulum stress (ER stress) can be induced when cellular protein homeostasis is damaged, and cells can activate the unfolded protein response (UPR) to restore protein homeostasis or induce cell death to facilitate the survival of the whole system. Globally, parasites are a constant threat to human health and are therefore considered a serious public health problem. Parasitic infection can cause ER stress in host cells, and parasites also possess part or all of the UPR under ER stress conditions. In this review, we aim to clarify the role of ER stress pathways and related molecules in parasites for their survival and development, the pathogenesis of parasitosis in hosts, and the artemisinin resistance of Plasmodium, which provides some potential drug design targets to inhibit survival of parasites, relieves pathological damage of parasitosis, and solves the problem of artemisinin resistance.

Protein Sumoylation Is Crucial for Phagocytosis in Entamoeba histolytica Trophozoites

Posttranslational modifications provide Entamoeba histolytica proteins the timing and signaling to intervene during different processes, such as phagocytosis. However, SUMOylation has not been studied in E. histolytica yet. Here, we characterized the E. histolytica SUMO gene, its product (EhSUMO), and the relevance of SUMOylation in phagocytosis. Our results indicated that EhSUMO has an extended N-terminus that differentiates SUMO from ubiquitin. It also presents the GG residues at the C-terminus and the ΨKXE/D binding motif, both involved in target protein contact. Additionally, the E. histolytica genome possesses the enzymes belonging to the SUMOylation-deSUMOylation machinery. Confocal microscopy assays disclosed a remarkable EhSUMO membrane activity with convoluted and changing structures in trophozoites during erythrophagocytosis. SUMOylated proteins appeared in pseudopodia, phagocytic channels, and around the adhered and ingested erythrocytes. Docking analysis predicted interaction of EhSUMO with EhADH (an ALIX family protein), and immunoprecipitation and immunofluorescence assays revealed that the association increased during phagocytosis; whereas the EhVps32 (a protein of the ESCRT-III complex)-EhSUMO interaction appeared stronger since basal conditions. In EhSUMO knocked-down trophozoites, the bizarre membranous structures disappeared, and EhSUMO interaction with EhADH and EhVps32 diminished. Our results evidenced the presence of a SUMO gene in E. histolytica and the SUMOylation relevance during phagocytosis. This is supported by bioinformatics screening of many other proteins of E. histolytica involved in phagocytosis, which present putative SUMOylation sites and the ΨKXE/D binding motif.

A new gene inventory of the ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like conjugation pathways in Giardia intestinalis

BACKGROUND

Ubiquitin (Ub) and Ub-like proteins (Ub-L) are critical regulators of complex cellular processes such as the cell cycle, DNA repair, transcription, chromatin remodeling, signal translation, and protein degradation. Giardia intestinalis possesses an experimentally proven Ub-conjugation system; however, a limited number of enzymes involved in this process were identified using basic local alignment search tool (BLAST). This is due to the limitations of BLAST’s ability to identify homologous functional regions when similarity between the sequences dips to < 30%. In addition Ub-Ls and their conjugating enzymes have not been fully elucidated in Giardia.

OBJETIVE

To identify the enzymes involved in the Ub and Ub-Ls conjugation processes using intelligent systems based on the hidden Markov models (HMMs).

METHODS

We performed an HMM search of functional Pfam domains found in the key enzymes of these pathways in Giardia’s proteome. Each open reading frame identified was analysed by sequence homology, domain architecture, and transcription levels.

FINDINGS

We identified 118 genes, 106 of which corresponded to the ubiquitination process (Ub, E1, E2, E3, and DUB enzymes). The E3 ligase group was the largest group with 82 members; 71 of which harbored a characteristic RING domain. Four Ub-Ls were identified and the conjugation enzymes for NEDD8 and URM1 were described for first time. The 3D model for Ub-Ls displayed the β-grasp fold typical. Furthermore, our sequence analysis for the corresponding activating enzymes detected the essential motifs required for conjugation.

MAIN CONCLUSIONS

Our findings highlight the complexity of Giardia’s Ub-conjugation system, which is drastically different from that previously reported, and provides evidence for the presence of NEDDylation and URMylation enzymes in the genome and transcriptome of G. intestinalis.