Growth and defence in young pine and spruce and the expression of resistance to a stem-feeding weevil

Induction of Defense Responses in Pinus sylvestris Seedlings by Methyl Jasmonate and Response to Heterobasidion annosum and Lophodermium seditiosum Inoculation

The induction of defense responses in Pinus sylvestris L. seedlings by methyl jasmonate (MeJA) was investigated in three experiments. Two different MeJA application methods were tested, and induction of defense responses was assayed by seedling inoculation with Heterobasidion annosum (Fr.) Bref. and Lophodermium seditiosum Minter, Staley and Millar. In the first experiment, five-year-old P. sylvestris ramets of one clone were directly treated with MeJA, followed by inoculation with H. annosum. In the second experiment, open-pollinated Scots pine seedlings were treated with MeJA by direct spraying and vaporization, and inoculation with H. annosum was done using a slightly modified protocol. In the third experiment, open-pollinated Scots pine seedlings were treated with MeJA by vaporization and inoculated with L. seditiosum. Direct application of MeJA induced seedling mortality, and in some cases, decreased resistance to inoculation with H. annosum. Application of MeJA by vaporization was less stressful for seedlings, and resulted in increased resistance to both H. annosum and L. seditiosum. In addition, an unforeseen Neodiprion sertifer (Geoffroy) and Hylobius abietis L. infestation provided anecdotal evidence of the efficacy of MeJA in inducing resistance to insect pests as well. Further studies are required on the induction of resistance to additional diseases and pests. Induced resistance could be used as a possible protective mechanism for Scots pine seedlings prior to planting during reforestation of stands to increase vitality and survival.

Resin ducts as resistance traits in conifers: linking dendrochronology and resin-based defences

Conifers have evolved different chemical and anatomical defences against a wide range of antagonists. Resin ducts produce, store and translocate oleoresin, a complex terpenoid mixture that acts as both a physical and a chemical defence. Although resin duct characteristics (e.g., number, density, area) have been positively related to biotic resistance in several conifer species, the literature reporting this association remains inconclusive. Axial resin ducts recorded in annual growth rings are an archive of annual defensive investment in trees. This whole-life record of defence investment can be analysed using standard dendrochronological procedures, which allows us to assess interannual variability and the effect of understudied drivers of phenotypic variation on resin-based defences. Understanding the sources of phenotypic variation in defences, such as genetic differentiation and environmental plasticity, is essential for assessing the adaptive potential of forest tree populations to resist pests under climate change. Here, we reviewed the evidence supporting the importance of resin ducts in conifer resistance, and summarized current knowledge about the sources of variation in resin duct production. We propose a standardized methodology to measure resin duct production by means of dendrochronological procedures. This approach will illuminate the roles of resin ducts in tree defence across species, while helping to fill pivotal knowledge gaps in plant defence theory, and leading to a robust understanding of the patterns of variation in resin-based defences throughout the tree's lifespan.

Discovering candidate genes that regulate resin canal number in Pinus taeda stems by integrating genetic analysis across environments, ages, and populations

Genetically improving constitutive resin canal development in Pinus stems may enhance the capacity to synthesize terpenes for bark beetle resistance, chemical feedstocks, and biofuels. To discover genes that potentially regulate axial resin canal number (RCN), single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in 4027 genes were tested for association with RCN in two growth rings and three environments in a complex pedigree of 520 Pinus taeda individuals (CCLONES). The map locations of associated genes were compared with RCN quantitative trait loci (QTLs) in a (P. taeda × Pinus elliottii) × P. elliottii pseudo-backcross of 345 full-sibs (BC1). Resin canal number was heritable (h(2) ˜ 0.12-0.21) and positively genetically correlated with xylem growth (rg ˜ 0.32-0.72) and oleoresin flow (rg ˜ 0.15-0.51). Sixteen well-supported candidate regulators of RCN were discovered in CCLONES, including genes associated across sites and ages, unidirectionally associated with oleoresin flow and xylem growth, and mapped to RCN QTLs in BC1. Breeding is predicted to increase RCN 11% in one generation and could be accelerated with genomic selection at accuracies of 0.45-0.52 across environments. There is significant genetic variation for RCN in loblolly pine, which can be exploited in breeding for elevated terpene content.

Hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) induces twig volatiles of eastern hemlock in a forest setting

The hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae Annand) is an invasive species causing high mortality of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis (L) Carriere) in the forests of eastern North America. Recent findings revealed that sapling eastern hemlocks artificially infested with hemlock woolly adelgid in a plantation setting responded to the insect with an array of induced resin volatile changes. Here we determine if eastern hemlocks growing beneath a forest canopy respond to hemlock woolly adelgid infestation with the same patterns of constitutive and inducible volatile resin production as those plantation specimens. We inoculated previously uninfested branches of mature and immature hemlocks in a central New England forest with hemlock woolly adelgid. We then sampled twig tissue of infested and uninfested trees in late spring, early summer, and mid-autumn, after known intervals of adelgid activity when an induced response might be expected. We identified and quantified resin volatiles by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. Constitutive levels of total monoterpenoids, sesquiterpenoids, and combined resin volatiles were all several-fold more abundant in forest trees than those previously measured in a plantation setting, pointing to further study of the influence of site factors on hemlock volatile production. Hemlock woolly adelgid infestation induced an array of changes in eastern hemlock's volatile profile, including many-fold increases in benzyl alcohol and methyl salicylate accumulation. Despite differences in constitutive concentrations of volatiles between the two sites, our findings verify that hemlock woolly adelgid elicits patterns of resin volatile induction in forest-grown eastern hemlocks quite similar to those previously observed in plantation grown trees.

Herbivore-induced resource sequestration in plants: why bother?

Herbivores can cause numerous changes in primary plant metabolism. Recent studies using radioisotopes, for example, have found that insect herbivores and related cues can induce faster export from leaves and roots and greater partitioning into tissues inaccessible to foraging herbivores. This process, termed induced resource sequestration, is being proposed as an important response of plants to cope with herbivory. Here, we review the evidence for resource sequestration and suggest that associated allocation and ecological costs may limit the benefit of this response because resources allocated to storage are not immediately available to other plant functions or may be consumed by other enemies. We then present a conceptual model that describes the conditions under which benefits might outweigh costs of induced resource sequestration. Benefits and costs are discussed in the context of differences in plant life-history traits and biotic and abiotic conditions, and new testable hypotheses are presented to guide future research. We predict that intrinsic factors related to life history, ontogeny and phenology will alter patterns of induced sequestration. We also predict that induced sequestration will depend on certain external factors: abiotic conditions, types of herbivores, and trophic interactions. We hope the concepts presented here will stimulate more focused research on the ecological and evolutionary costs and benefits of herbivore-induced resource sequestration.

Importance of resin ducts in reducing ponderosa pine mortality from bark beetle attack

The relative importance of growth and defense to tree mortality during drought and bark beetle attacks is poorly understood. We addressed this issue by comparing growth and defense characteristics between 25 pairs of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) trees that survived and trees that died from drought-associated bark beetle attacks in forests of northern Arizona, USA. The three major findings of our research were: (1) xylem resin ducts in live trees were >10% larger (diameter), >25% denser (no. of resin ducts mm(-2)), and composed >50% more area per unit ring growth than dead trees; (2) measures of defense, such as resin duct production (no. of resin ducts year(-1)) and the proportion of xylem ring area to resin ducts, not growth, were the best model parameters of ponderosa pine mortality; and (3) most correlations between annual variation in growth and resin duct characteristics were positive suggesting that conditions conducive to growth also increase resin duct production. Our results suggest that trees that survive drought and subsequent bark beetle attacks invest more carbon in resin defense than trees that die, and that carbon allocation to resin ducts is a more important determinant of tree mortality than allocation to radial growth.