1
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Xu C, Silliman BR, Chen J, Li X, Thomsen MS, Zhang Q, Lee J, Lefcheck JS, Daleo P, Hughes BB, Jones HP, Wang R, Wang S, Smith CS, Xi X, Altieri AH, van de Koppel J, Palmer TM, Liu L, Wu J, Li B, He Q. Herbivory limits success of vegetation restoration globally. Science 2023; 382:589-594. [PMID: 37917679 DOI: 10.1126/science.add2814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Restoring vegetation in degraded ecosystems is an increasingly common practice for promoting biodiversity and ecological function, but successful implementation is hampered by an incomplete understanding of the processes that limit restoration success. By synthesizing terrestrial and aquatic studies globally (2594 experimental tests from 610 articles), we reveal substantial herbivore control of vegetation under restoration. Herbivores at restoration sites reduced vegetation abundance more strongly (by 89%, on average) than those at relatively undegraded sites and suppressed, rather than fostered, plant diversity. These effects were particularly pronounced in regions with higher temperatures and lower precipitation. Excluding targeted herbivores temporarily or introducing their predators improved restoration by magnitudes similar to or greater than those achieved by managing plant competition or facilitation. Thus, managing herbivory is a promising strategy for enhancing vegetation restoration efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changlin Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Brian R Silliman
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Beaufort, NC, USA
| | - Jianshe Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xincheng Li
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mads S Thomsen
- Marine Ecology Research Group and Centre for Integrative Ecology, School of Biological Sciences, University of Canterbury, Christchurch, New Zealand
- Department of Bioscience, Aarhus University, Roskilde, Denmark
| | - Qun Zhang
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Juhyung Lee
- Marine Science Center, Northeastern University, Nahant, MA, USA
- Department of Oceanography and Marine Research Institute, Pusan National University, Busan, Republic of Korea
| | - Jonathan S Lefcheck
- Tennenbaum Marine Observatories Network and MarineGEO Program, Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
- University of Maryland Center for Environmental Science, Cambridge, MD, USA
| | - Pedro Daleo
- Instituto de Investigaciones Marinas y Costeras (IIMyC), UNMdP, CONICETC, Mar del Plata, Argentina
| | - Brent B Hughes
- Department of Biology, Sonoma State University, Rohnert Park, CA, USA
| | - Holly P Jones
- Department of Biological Sciences and Institute for the Study of the Environment, Sustainability, and Energy, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA
| | - Rong Wang
- School of Ecological and Environmental Sciences, Zhejiang Tiantong Forest Ecosystem National Observation and Research Station, East China Normal University, Shanghai, China
| | - Shaopeng Wang
- Institute of Ecology, College of Urban and Environmental Sciences, and Key Laboratory for Earth Surface Processes of the Ministry of Education, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Carter S Smith
- Nicholas School of the Environment, Duke University, Beaufort, NC, USA
| | - Xinqiang Xi
- Department of Ecology, School of Life Science, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Andrew H Altieri
- Department of Environmental Engineering Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Johan van de Koppel
- Department of Estuarine and Delta Systems, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research, Yerseke, Netherlands
- Conservation Ecology Group, Groningen Institute for Evolutionary Life Sciences, University of Groningen, Groningen, Netherlands
| | - Todd M Palmer
- Department of Biology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, USA
| | - Lingli Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Vegetation and Environmental Change, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Jihua Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Herbage Improvement and Grassland Agro-Ecosystems, and College of Ecology, Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu, China
| | - Bo Li
- Yunnan Key Laboratory of Plant Reproductive Adaptation and Evolutionary Ecology and Centre for Invasion Biology, Institute of Biodiversity, School of Ecology and Environmental Science, Yunnan University, Kunming, Yunnan, China
| | - Qiang He
- MOE Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, National Observations and Research Station for Wetland Ecosystems of the Yangtze Estuary, School of Life Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
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2
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Hanberry BB, Faison EK. Re-framing deer herbivory as a natural disturbance regime with ecological and socioeconomic outcomes in the eastern United States. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2023; 868:161669. [PMID: 36681343 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.161669] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Revised: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2023] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Natural disturbances are critical ecosystem processes, with both ecological and socioeconomic benefits and disadvantages. Large herbivores are natural disturbances that have removed plant biomass for millions of years, although herbivore influence likely has declined during the past thousands of years corresponding with extinctions and declines in distributions and abundances of most animal species. Nonetheless, the conventional view, particularly in eastern North America, is that herbivory by large wild herbivores is at unprecedented levels, resulting in unnatural damage to forests. Here, we propose consideration of large herbivores as a natural disturbance that also imparts many crucial ecological advantages, using white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), the only wild large herbivore remaining throughout the eastern U.S., as our focal species. We examined evidence of detrimental effects of browsing on trees and forbs. We then considered that deer contribute to both fuel reduction and ecological restoration of herbaceous plants and historical open forests of savannas and woodlands by controlling tree and shrub densities, mimicking the consumer role of fire. Similarly to other disturbances, deer disturbance 'regimes' are uneven in severity across different ecosystems and landscapes, resulting in heterogeneity and diversity. In addition to biodiversity support and fuel reduction, socioeconomic benefits include >$20 billion dollars per year by 10 million hunters that support jobs and wildlife agencies, non-consumptive enjoyment of nature by 80 million people, cultural importance, and deer as ecological ambassadors, whereas costs include about $5 billion and up to 450 human deaths per year for motor vehicle accidents, along with crop damage and disease transmission. From a perspective of historical ecology rather than current baselines, deer impart a fundamental disturbance process with many ecological benefits and a range of socioeconomic effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brice B Hanberry
- USDA Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Rapid City, SD 57702, United States of America.
| | - Edward K Faison
- Highstead, PO Box 1097, Redding, CT 06875, United States of America
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3
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Buñuel X, Alcoverro T, Boada J, Zinkunegi L, Smith TM, Barrera A, Casas M, Farina S, Pérez M, Romero J, Arthur R, Pagès JF. Indirect grazing‐induced mechanisms contribute to the resilience of Mediterranean seagrass meadows to sea urchin herbivory. OIKOS 2023. [DOI: 10.1111/oik.09520] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/17/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Xavier Buñuel
- Dept de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Univ. de Barcelona Barcelona Spain
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
| | - Teresa Alcoverro
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
| | - Jordi Boada
- Dept de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Univ. de Barcelona Barcelona Spain
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
| | - Leire Zinkunegi
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
| | - Timothy M. Smith
- Centre for Tropical Water & Aquatic Ecosystem Research (TropWATER), James Cook Univ. Cairns QLD Australia
| | - Anaïs Barrera
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
| | - Marc Casas
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
| | - Simone Farina
- Dept of Integrative Marine Ecology (EMI), Stazione Zoologica Anton Dohrn–National Inst. of Marine Biology, Ecology and Biotechnology, Genoa Marine Centre Genoa Italy
- IAS‐CNR, Inst. for the Study of Anthropic Impacts and Sustainability in the Marine Environment, National Research Council Torre Grande OR Italy
| | - Marta Pérez
- Dept de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Univ. de Barcelona Barcelona Spain
| | - Javier Romero
- Dept de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Univ. de Barcelona Barcelona Spain
| | - Rohan Arthur
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
- Nature Conservation Foundation Mysore India
| | - Jordi F. Pagès
- Dept de Biologia Evolutiva, Ecologia i Ciències Ambientals, Facultat de Biologia, Univ. de Barcelona Barcelona Spain
- Centre for Advanced Studies of Blanes (CEAB‐CSIC), Blanes Girona Spain
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4
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Clare JDJ, Zuckerberg B, Liu N, Stenglein JL, Van Deelen TR, Pauli JN, Townsend PA. A phenology of fear: Investigating scale and seasonality in predator-prey games between wolves and white-tailed deer. Ecology 2023; 104:e4019. [PMID: 36882907 DOI: 10.1002/ecy.4019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2022] [Revised: 01/31/2023] [Accepted: 02/13/2023] [Indexed: 03/09/2023]
Abstract
Predators and prey engage in games where each player must counter the moves of the other, and these games include multiple phases operating at different spatiotemporal scales. Recent work has highlighted potential issues related to scale-sensitive inferences in predator-prey interactions, and there is growing appreciation that these may exhibit pronounced but predictable dynamics. Motivated by previous assertions about effects arising from foraging games between white-tailed deer and canid predators (coyotes and wolves), we used a large and year-round network of trail cameras to characterize deer and predator foraging games, with a particular focus on clarifying its temporal scale and seasonal variation. Linear features were strongly associated with predator detection rates, suggesting these play a central role in canid foraging tactics by expediting movement. Consistent with expectations for prey contending with highly mobile predators, deer responses were more sensitive to proximal risk metrics at finer spatiotemporal scales, suggesting that coarser but more commonly used scales of analysis may miss useful insights into prey risk-response. Time allocation appears to be a key tactic for deer risk management and was more strongly moderated by factors associated with forage or evasion heterogeneity (forest cover, snow and plant phenology) than factors associated with the likelihood of predator encounter (linear features). Trade-offs between food and safety appeared to vary as much seasonally as spatially, with snow and vegetation phenology giving rise to a "phenology of fear." Deer appear free to counter predators during milder times of year, but a combination of poor foraging state, reduced forage availability, greater movements costs, and reproductive state dampen responsiveness during winter. Pronounced intra-annual variation in predator-prey interactions may be common in seasonal environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D J Clare
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Benjamin Zuckerberg
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Nanfeng Liu
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Jennifer L Stenglein
- Office of Applied Science, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, 101 S. Webster Street, Box 7921, Madison, Wisconsin, 53707, USA
| | - Timothy R Van Deelen
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Jonathan N Pauli
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
| | - Philip A Townsend
- Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, University of Wisconsin - Madison, 1630 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin, 53706, USA
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Gilbert SL, Haynes T, Lindberg MS, Albert DM, Kissling M, Lynch L, Person D. Potential Futures for Coastal Wolves and Their Ecosystem Services in Alaska, With Implications for Management of a Social-Ecological System. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.809371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Carnivores across much of the world are declining, leading to loss of biodiversity as well as the ecosystem services carnivores provide. In 2020, the Alexander Archipelago (AA) wolf was petitioned for protection under the U.S. Endangered Species Act (ESA) for the third time in 30 years. Concerns included habitat alteration from industrial timber harvest and subsequent declines in prey (deer), human-caused mortality, climate change, and genetic inbreeding. However, the underlying biogeography and ecology of these wolves continues to suggest resiliency across the subspecies’ range, even though local populations may go extinct. If local wolf populations go extinct, it will result in loss of their ecosystem services (e.g., interactions of wolves with their prey, which prevents over-browsing and protects carbon sequestration in soils and trees), which will likely have major consequences for the local social-ecological system. Here, we updated a model we constructed for the last ESA listing process (2015) to examine the dynamics of wolf and deer populations on Prince of Wales Island (the primary geographic focus of all three petitions) in response to future environmental and management scenarios developed with stakeholders. Further, we considered how changes in deer abundance impact predation services (prevention of over-browsing by deer). We found that wolf populations generally persisted over 30 years, but dropped below an effective population size of 50 wolves in 10–98% of years simulated. Low wolf abundance resulted in higher deer abundance, which increased hunting opportunity, but also browsing damages (e.g., 19% of areas would be over-browsed if wolf harvest caps are removed, and >30% of areas would be over-browsed if wolves go extinct). Human harvest of wildlife was a key regulator of abundance and ecosystem services within the coastal rainforest social-ecological system; wolf abundance was most affected by wolf harvest regulations; and deer harvest restrictions increased wolf and deer abundances, but also greatly increased browsing impacts (>70% of areas heavily browsed if hunting ceased). Our findings support an integrated approach to management of this social-ecological system, such that social and ecological sciences are both used to monitor important components of the system (e.g., measuring public sentiment and likelihood of poaching, alongside wolf and deer numbers). Integration and adaptive approaches are needed to ensure that the many ecosystem services humans depend on are valued, conserved, and restored, including the cryptic predation services wolves have historically provided to the timber industry via reduced browsing pressure by deer.
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Gilbert JH, David P, Price MW, Oren J. Ojibwe Perspectives Toward Proper Wolf Stewardship and Wisconsin’s February 2021 Wolf Hunting Season. Front Ecol Evol 2022. [DOI: 10.3389/fevo.2022.782840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
In February 2021, the Wisconsin DNR implemented a wolf season in which > 20% of the population was killed in 63 h. Wisconsin’s Ojibwe tribes had a visceral reaction to this killing. This paper provides a perspective for this reaction by reviewing the Ojibwe relationship with Ma’iingan. This relationship maintains that Ma’iingan and Ojibwe are to be considered relatives whose fates are intertwined. Ma’iingan and Ojibwe have lived parallel histories, suffering from the effects of colonization, the decimation of wolf populations and decline of tribal culture. The Ojibwe tribes ceded vast territories in treaties with the United States while retaining common use rights, including the right to hunt and fish. These rights were reaffirmed just as wolves were reestablishing themselves in Wisconsin. The tribes continue to strengthen their culture, while wolf populations continue to recover. By examining these comparative histories, it becomes apparent that “whatever happens to one happens to the other.” Unfortunately, Ma’iingan were not adjudicated during the Wisconsin treaty case, creating uncertainty over how the relationship between the Ojibwe and Ma’iingan is to be respected by the state. The tribes believe their treaty right includes protection for wolves, so that wolves can fulfill their cultural and ecological purposes. Tribes maintain that Ma’iingan should determine their own population levels, in order to provide ecological and cultural benefits. A respectful and appreciative relationship with Ma’iingan should be maintained so that the future well-being of both Ma’iingan and the Ojibwe will be assured.
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Chitwood MC, Baruzzi C, Lashley MA. “Ecology of fear” in ungulates: Opportunities for improving conservation. Ecol Evol 2022; 12:e8657. [PMID: 35261746 PMCID: PMC8888265 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.8657] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Revised: 01/31/2022] [Accepted: 02/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Because ungulates are important contributors to ecosystem function, understanding the “ecology of fear” could be important to the conservation of ecosystems. Although studying ungulate ecology of fear is common, knowledge from ungulate systems is highly contested among ecologists. Here, we review the available literature on the ecology of fear in ungulates to generalize our current knowledge and how we can leverage it for conservation. Four general focus areas emerged from the 275 papers included in our literature search (and some papers were included in multiple categories): behavioral responses to predation risk (79%), physiological responses to predation risk (15%), trophic cascades resulting from ungulate responses to predation risk (20%), and manipulation of predation risk (1%). Of papers focused on behavior, 75% were about movement and habitat selection. Studies were biased toward North America (53%), tended to be focused on elk (Cervus canadensis; 29%), and were dominated by gray wolves (40%) or humans (39%) as predators of interest. Emerging literature suggests that we can utilize predation risk for conservation with top‐down (i.e., increasing predation risk) and bottom‐up (i.e., manipulating landscape characteristics to increase risk or risk perception) approaches. It is less clear whether fear‐related changes in physiology have population‐level fitness consequences or cascading effects, which could be fruitful avenues for future research. Conflicting evidence of trait‐mediated trophic cascades might be improved with better replication across systems and accounting for confounding effects of ungulate density. Improving our understanding of mechanisms modulating the nature of trophic cascades likely is most important to ensure desirable conservation outcomes. We recommend future work embrace the complexity of natural systems by attempting to link together the focal areas of study identified herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Colter Chitwood
- Department of Natural Resource Ecology and Management Oklahoma State University Stillwater Oklahoma USA
| | - Carolina Baruzzi
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Mississippi State University Starkville Mississippi USA
- School of Forest, Fisheries, and Geomatics Sciences University of Florida Gainesville Florida USA
| | - Marcus A. Lashley
- Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Aquaculture Mississippi State University Starkville Mississippi USA
- Department of Wildlife Ecology and Conservation University of Florida Gainesville Florida USA
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Peterson CJ, Mitchell MS, DeCesare NJ, Bishop CJ, Sells SS. Habitat selection by wolves and mountain lions during summer in western Montana. PLoS One 2021; 16:e0254827. [PMID: 34293042 PMCID: PMC8297843 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0254827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
In the Northern Rockies of the United States, predators like wolves (Canis lupus) and mountain lions (Puma concolor) have been implicated in fluctuations or declines in populations of game species like elk (Cervus canadensis) and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). In particular, local distributions of these predators may affect ungulate behavior, use of space, and dynamics. Our goal was to develop generalizable predictions of habitat selection by wolves and mountain lions across western Montana. We hypothesized both predator species would select habitat that maximized their chances of encountering and killing ungulates and that minimized their chances of encountering humans. We assessed habitat selection by these predators during summer using within-home range (3rd order) resource selection functions (RSFs) in multiple study areas throughout western Montana, and tested how generalizable RSF predictions were by applying them to out-of-sample telemetry data from separate study areas. Selection for vegetation cover-types varied substantially among wolves in different study areas. Nonetheless, our predictions of 3rd order selection by wolves were highly generalizable across different study areas. Wolves consistently selected simple topography where ungulate prey may be more susceptible to their cursorial hunting mode. Topographic features may serve as better proxies of predation risk by wolves than vegetation cover-types. Predictions of mountain lion distribution were less generalizable. Use of rugged terrain by mountain lions varied across ecosystem-types, likely because mountain lions targeted the habitats of different prey species in each study area. Our findings suggest that features that facilitate the hunting mode of a predator (i.e. simple topography for cursorial predators and hiding cover for stalking predators) may be more generalizable predictors of their habitat selection than features associated with local prey densities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Collin J. Peterson
- Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Michael S. Mitchell
- US Geological Survey, Montana Cooperative Research Unit, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States of America
| | - Nicholas J. DeCesare
- Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Parks, Missoula, MT, United States of America
| | - Chad J. Bishop
- Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States of America
| | - Sarah S. Sells
- Montana Cooperative Wildlife Research Unit, Wildlife Biology Program, University of Montana, Missoula, MT, United States of America
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Kautz TM, Beyer DE, Farley Z, Fowler NL, Kellner KF, Lutto AL, Petroelje TR, Belant JL. American martens use vigilance and short-term avoidance to navigate a landscape of fear from fishers at artificial scavenging sites. Sci Rep 2021; 11:12146. [PMID: 34108524 PMCID: PMC8190286 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-91587-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Where two sympatric species compete for the same resource and one species is dominant, there is potential for the subordinate species to be affected through interference competition or energetic costs of avoiding predation. Fishers (Pekania pennanti) and American martens (Martes americana) often have high niche overlap, but fishers are considered dominant and potentially limiting to martens. We observed presence and vigilance of fishers and martens at winter carcass sites using remote cameras in Michigan, USA, to test the hypothesis that interference competition from fishers creates a landscape of fear for martens. Within winters, fishers co-occupied 78–88% of sites occupied by martens, and martens co-occupied 79–88% of sites occupied by fishers. Fishers displaced martens from carcasses during 21 of 6117 marten visits, while martens displaced fishers during 0 of 1359 fisher visits. Martens did not alter diel activity in response to fisher use of sites. Martens allocated 37% of time to vigilance compared to 23% for fishers, and martens increased vigilance up to 8% at sites previously visited by fishers. Fishers increased vigilance by up to 8% at sites previously visited by martens. Our results indicate that fishers were dominant over martens, and martens had greater baseline perception of risk than fishers. However, fishers appeared to be also affected as the dominant competitor by putting effort into scanning for martens. Both species appeared widespread and common in our study area, but there was no evidence that fishers spatially or temporally excluded martens from scavenging at carcasses other than occasional short-term displacement when a fisher was present. Instead, martens appeared to mitigate risk from fishers by using vigilance and short-term avoidance. Multiple short-term anti-predator behaviors within a landscape of fear may facilitate coexistence among carnivore species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd M Kautz
- Global Wildlife Conservation Center, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA.
| | - Dean E Beyer
- Wildlife Division, Michigan Department of Natural Resources, 1990 US Highway 41 S, Marquette, MI, 49855, USA
| | - Zachary Farley
- Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Ecology, New Mexico State University, College of Agricultural, Consumer, and Environmental Sciences, 2980 South Espina, Las Cruces, NM, 88003, USA
| | - Nicholas L Fowler
- Global Wildlife Conservation Center, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Kenneth F Kellner
- Global Wildlife Conservation Center, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Ashley L Lutto
- Global Wildlife Conservation Center, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Tyler R Petroelje
- Global Wildlife Conservation Center, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
| | - Jerrold L Belant
- Global Wildlife Conservation Center, State University of New York, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, 1 Forestry Drive, Syracuse, NY, 13210, USA
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Abstract
The effects of human disturbance spread over virtually all ecosystems and ecological communities on Earth. In this review, we focus on the effects of human disturbance on terrestrial apex predators. We summarize their ecological role in nature and how they respond to different sources of human disturbance. Apex predators control their prey and smaller predators numerically and via behavioral changes to avoid predation risk, which in turn can affect lower trophic levels. Crucially, reducing population numbers and triggering behavioral responses are also the effects that human disturbance causes to apex predators, which may in turn influence their ecological role. Some populations continue to be at the brink of extinction, but others are partially recovering former ranges, via natural recolonization and through reintroductions. Carnivore recovery is both good news for conservation and a challenge for management, particularly when recovery occurs in human-dominated landscapes. Therefore, we conclude by discussing several management considerations that, adapted to local contexts, may favor the recovery of apex predator populations and their ecological functions in nature.
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Rossa M, Lovari S, Ferretti F. Spatiotemporal patterns of wolf, mesocarnivores and prey in a Mediterranean area. Behav Ecol Sociobiol 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s00265-020-02956-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Spatial and temporal occurrence can mediate behavioural interactions between apex predators, mesocarnivores and herbivores. Predators should adapt their activity to that of prey, whereas predator avoidance would be expected to influence activity patterns and space use of prey and smaller competitors. We evaluated interspecific spatiotemporal relationships in a prey-rich community including an apex predator (the wolf), three wild ungulates and several smaller herbivores/mesocarnivores, through camera trapping. All considered species (i.e. wolves and potential prey/smaller competitors: wild boar, fallow deer, roe deer, crested porcupine, red fox and European badger) were active especially at night and/or twilight. Among wild ungulates, the wolf showed the greatest temporal overlap with the wild boar and the lowest one with the least abundant and used of them, i.e. the roe deer. The main prey (i.e. the fallow deer) showed more diurnal activity and a lower temporal overlap with the predator in sites with high wolf activity than in low-activity ones. Among mesocarnivores, the red fox showed extensive temporal overlap with the wolf: the overlap between the two canids was greater in sites intensively used by this apex predator than in sites with low wolf activity, supporting a concurrent study which suggested a potential for facilitative—rather than competitive—interactions. Spatiotemporal relationships suggest complex interactions between the apex predator, prey and smaller carnivores, for which a substantial temporal or spatial association was often supported.
Significance statement
There is a growing interest in the influence of apex predators on ecosystems through their effects on the behaviour of prey and smaller carnivores, especially in the light of the ongoing recovery of large carnivores in temperate areas. Predators should synchronise their activity to that of prey; conversely, prey and smaller carnivores would be expected to avoid predators. In a rich community including the wolf, three wild ungulates and several mesomammals, we detected (i) a substantial temporal overlap between wolves and wild boar, porcupines and mesocarnivores; (ii) a negative temporal association between the predator and its main prey (i.e. the fallow deer) and (iii) a great temporal overlap between the wolf and the red fox. We provide a baseline to evaluate temporal changes of predator-prey-mesocarnivore behavioural interactions along with variations of carnivore-prey densities.
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Palmer MS, Portales-Reyes C, Potter C, Mech LD, Isbell F. Behaviorally-mediated trophic cascade attenuated by prey use of risky places at safe times. Oecologia 2021; 195:235-248. [PMID: 33389153 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-020-04816-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The mere threat of predation may incite behavioral changes in prey that lead to community-wide impacts on productivity, biodiversity, and nutrient cycling. The paucity of experimental manipulations, however, has contributed to controversy over the strength of this pathway in wide-ranging vertebrate systems. We investigated whether simulated gray wolf (Canis lupus) presence can induce behaviorally-mediated trophic cascades, specifically, whether the 'fear' of wolf olfactory cues alone can change deer foraging behavior in ways that affect plants and soils. Wolves were recently removed from the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve (Minnesota, USA), such that consumptively mediated predator effects were negligible. At 32 experimental plots, we crossed two nested treatments: wolf urine application and herbivore exclosures. We deployed camera traps to quantify how white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) adjusted their spatiotemporal habitat use, foraging, and vigilance in response to wolf cues and how these behavioral changes affected plant productivity, plant communities, and soil nutrients. Weekly applications of wolf urine significantly altered deer behavior, but deer responses did not cascade to affect plant or soil properties. Deer substantially reduced crepuscular activity at wolf-simulated sites compared to control locations. As wolves in this area predominantly hunted during mornings and evenings, this response potentially allows deer to maximize landscape use by accessing dangerous areas when temporal threat is low. Our experiment suggests that prey may be sensitive to 'dynamic' predation risk that is structured across both space and time and, consequentially, prey use of risky areas during safe times may attenuate behaviorally-mediated trophic cascades at the predator-prey interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meredith S Palmer
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55104, USA. .,Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Princeton University, Princeton, NJ, 08544, USA.
| | - C Portales-Reyes
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55104, USA
| | - C Potter
- Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve, University of Minnesota, East Bethel, MN, USA
| | - L David Mech
- U.S. Geological Survey, Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center, Jamestown, ND, USA
| | - Forest Isbell
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, University of Minnesota, Saint Paul, MN, 55104, USA.,Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve, University of Minnesota, East Bethel, MN, USA
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13
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Elbroch LM, Ferguson JM, Quigley H, Craighead D, Thompson DJ, Wittmer HU. Reintroduced wolves and hunting limit the abundance of a subordinate apex predator in a multi-use landscape. Proc Biol Sci 2020; 287:20202202. [PMID: 33171087 PMCID: PMC7735271 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2020.2202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2020] [Accepted: 10/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Top-down effects of apex predators are modulated by human impacts on community composition and species abundances. Consequently, research supporting top-down effects of apex predators occurs almost entirely within protected areas rather than the multi-use landscapes dominating modern ecosystems. Here, we developed an integrated population model to disentangle the concurrent contributions of a reintroduced apex predator, the grey wolf, human hunting and prey abundances on vital rates and abundance of a subordinate apex predator, the puma. Increasing wolf numbers had strong negative effects on puma fecundity, and subadult and adult survival. Puma survival was also influenced by density dependence. Overall, puma dynamics in our multi-use landscape were more strongly influenced by top-down forces exhibited by a reintroduced apex predator, than by human hunting or bottom-up forces (prey abundance) subsidized by humans. Quantitatively, the average annual impact of human hunting on equilibrium puma abundance was equivalent to the effects of 20 wolves. Historically, wolves may have limited pumas across North America and dictated puma scarcity in systems lacking sufficient refugia to mitigate the effects of competition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jake M. Ferguson
- School of Life Sciences, University of Hawaii, Honolulu, HI 96822, USA
| | | | | | - Daniel J. Thompson
- Large Carnivore Section, Wyoming Game and Fish Department, 260 Buena Vista Dr., Lander, WY 82520, USA
| | - Heiko U. Wittmer
- School of Biological Sciences, Victoria University of Wellington, PO Box 600, Wellington 6140, New Zealand
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14
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Chandler JL, Van Deelen TR, Nibbelink NP, Orrock JL. Large-scale patterns of seed removal by small mammals differ between areas of low- versus high-wolf occupancy. Ecol Evol 2020; 10:7145-7156. [PMID: 32760518 PMCID: PMC7391330 DOI: 10.1002/ece3.6415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 03/05/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Because most tree species recruit from seeds, seed predation by small-mammal granivores may be important for determining plant distribution and regeneration in forests. Despite the importance of seed predation, large-scale patterns of small-mammal granivory are often highly variable and thus difficult to predict. We hypothesize distributions of apex predators can create large-scale variation in the distribution and abundance of mesopredators that consume small mammals, creating predictable areas of high and low granivory. For example, because gray wolf (Canis lupus) territories are characterized by relatively less use by coyotes (C. latrans) and greater use by foxes (Vulpes vulpes, Urocyon cinereoargentus) that consume a greater proportion of small mammals, wolf territories may be areas of reduced small-mammal granivory. Using large-scale, multiyear field trials at 22 sites with high- and low-wolf occupancy in northern Wisconsin, we evaluated whether removal of seeds of four tree species was lower in wolf territories. Consistent with the hypothesized consequences of wolf occupancy, seed removal of three species was more than 25% lower in high-wolf-occupancy areas across 2 years and small-mammal abundance was more than 40% lower in high-wolf areas during one of two study years. These significant results, in conjunction with evidence of seed consumption in situ and the absence of significant habitat differences between high- and low-wolf areas, suggest that top-down effects of wolves on small-mammal granivory and seed survival may occur. Understanding how interactions among carnivores create spatial patterns in interactions among lower trophic levels may allow for more accurate predictions of large-scale patterns in seed survival and forest composition.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Nathan P. Nibbelink
- Warnell School of Forestry and Natural ResourcesUniversity of GeorgiaAthensGeorgiaUSA
| | - John L. Orrock
- Department of Integrative BiologyUniversity of WisconsinMadisonWisconsinUSA
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15
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Zemanova MA. Towards more compassionate wildlife research through the 3Rs principles: moving from invasive to non-invasive methods. WILDLIFE BIOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.2981/wlb.00607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Miriam A. Zemanova
- M. A. Zemanova (https://orcid.org/0000-0002-5002-3388) ✉ , Dept of Philosophy, Univ. of Basel, Steinengraben 5, CH-4051 Basel, Switzerland
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16
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Martin JL, Chamaillé-Jammes S, Waller DM. Deer, wolves, and people: costs, benefits and challenges of living together. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2020; 95:782-801. [PMID: 32043747 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12587] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 01/22/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Human-driven species annihilations loom as a major crisis. However the recovery of deer and wolf populations in many parts of the northern hemisphere has resulted in conflicts and controversies rather than in relief. Both species interact in complex ways with their environment, each other, and humans. We review these interactions in the context of the ecological and human costs and benefits associated with these species. We integrate scattered information to widen our perspective on the nature and perception of these costs and benefits and how they link to each other and ongoing controversies regarding how we manage deer and wolf populations. After revisiting the ecological roles deer and wolves play in contemporary ecosystems, we explore how they interact, directly and indirectly, with human groups including farmers, foresters, shepherds, and hunters. Interactions with deer and wolves generate various axes of tension, posing both ecological and sociological challenges. Resolving these tensions and conflicts requires that we address key questions using integrative approaches: what are the ecological consequences of deer and wolf recovery? How do they influence each other? What are the social and socio-ecological consequences of large deer populations and wolf presence? Finally, what key obstacles must be overcome to allow deer, wolves and people to coexist? Reviewing contemporary ecological and sociological results suggests insights and ways to improve our understanding and resolve long-standing challenges to coexistence. We should begin by agreeing to enhance aggregate benefits while minimizing the collective costs we incur by interacting with deer and wolves. We should also view these species, and ourselves, as parts of integrated ecosystems subject to long-term dynamics. If co-existence is our goal, we need deer and wolves to persevere in ways that are compatible with human interests. Our human interests, however, should be inclusive and fairly value all the costs and benefits deer and wolves entail including their intrinsic value. Shifts in human attitudes and cultural learning that are already occurring will reshape our ecological interactions with deer and wolves.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Louis Martin
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive UMR 5175, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier, EPHE - PSL, IRD, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Simon Chamaillé-Jammes
- Centre d'Écologie Fonctionnelle et Évolutive UMR 5175, CNRS, Université de Montpellier, Université Paul Valéry Montpellier, EPHE - PSL, IRD, 34293, Montpellier, France
| | - Donald M Waller
- Department of Botany, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, WI, 53706, USA
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17
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Olson E, Van Deelen T, Ventura S. Variation in anti-predator behaviors of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in a multi-predator system. CAN J ZOOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1139/cjz-2018-0254] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Anti-predator responses to perceived predation risk can influence population demography. Understanding the relative effect of predator exposure and intraspecific interactions across a variety of anti-predator behaviors provides important insight into inter- and intra-specific drivers of species-specific behaviors. We merged classical behavioral observation methods with camera trapping techniques to examine anti-predator behaviors of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus (Zimmermann, 1780)) relative to variation in predator exposure and interspecific interactions. We coded 772 behavioral observations from >180 000 images spanning 605 trap-nights. Seasonal differences in behavioral responses to diminishing returns on foraging effort indicated that deer are risk-averse foragers and are more likely to exhibit risky behaviors in the presence of a concentrated food resource when the nutritional value of food resources are high. However, deer tended to spend less time at a site as resources diminished, supporting marginal value theories of habitat use. Intraspecific interaction predicted vigilance and the amount of time spent at a site. Similar to many other species, deer tended to be less vigilant and spend more time at a site as group size increased. Our research suggests that white-tailed deer in Wisconsin make foraging decisions based on factors associated with individual fitness, presence of conspecifics, and habitat characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- E.R. Olson
- University of Wisconsin–Madison, Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, Madison, WI 53706, U.S.A
| | - T.R. Van Deelen
- University of Wisconsin–Madison, Department of Forest and Wildlife Ecology, Madison, WI 53706, U.S.A
| | - S.J. Ventura
- University of Wisconsin–Madison, Nelson Institute for Environmental Studies, Madison, WI 53706, U.S.A
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18
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Clark RE, Gutierrez Illan J, Comerford MS, Singer MS. Keystone mutualism influences forest tree growth at a landscape scale. Ecol Lett 2019; 22:1599-1607. [DOI: 10.1111/ele.13352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Revised: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 06/29/2019] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Emerson Clark
- Department of Biology Wesleyan University Middletown CT USA
- Department of Entomology Washington State University Pullman WA USA
| | | | - Mattheau S. Comerford
- Department of Biology Wesleyan University Middletown CT USA
- Department of Biosciences Rice University Houston TX USA
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19
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Painter LE, Beschta RL, Larsen EJ, Ripple WJ. Aspen recruitment in the Yellowstone region linked to reduced herbivory after large carnivore restoration. Ecosphere 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/ecs2.2376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Luke E. Painter
- Department of Fisheries and Wildlife; Oregon State University; Corvallis Oregon 97331 USA
| | - Robert L. Beschta
- Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society; Oregon State University; Corvallis Oregon 97331 USA
| | - Eric J. Larsen
- Department of Geography and Geology; University of Wisconsin-Stevens Point; Stevens Point Wisconsin 54481-3897 USA
| | - William J. Ripple
- Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society; Oregon State University; Corvallis Oregon 97331 USA
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20
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Wolves and Tree Logs: Landscape-Scale and Fine-Scale Risk Factors Interactively Influence Tree Regeneration. Ecosystems 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10021-018-0263-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/16/2022]
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21
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Congreve CR, Falk AR, Lamsdell JC. Biological hierarchies and the nature of extinction. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2017; 93:811-826. [DOI: 10.1111/brv.12368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2017] [Revised: 08/18/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Curtis R. Congreve
- Department of Geosciences; 510 Deike Building, Pennsylvania State University; University Park PA 16802 U.S.A
| | - Amanda R. Falk
- Department of Biology; Centre College, 600 West Walnut Street; Danville KY 40422 U.S.A
| | - James C. Lamsdell
- Department of Geology and Geography, 98 Beechurst Avenure, Brooks Hall; West Virginia University; Morgantown WV 26506 U.S.A
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Abstract
Plant-herbivore interactions shape community dynamics across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial habitats. From amphipods to elephants and from algae to trees, plant-herbivore relationships are the crucial link generating animal biomass (and human societies) from mere sunlight. These interactions are, thus, pivotal to understanding the ecology and evolution of virtually any ecosystem. Here, we briefly highlight recent advances in four areas of plant-herbivore interactions: (1) plant defense theory, (2) herbivore diversity and ecosystem function, (3) predation risk aversion and herbivory, and (4) how a changing climate impacts plant-herbivore interactions. Recent advances in plant defense theory, for example, highlight how plant life history and defense traits affect and are affected by multiple drivers, including enemy pressure, resource availability, and the local plant neighborhood, resulting in trait-mediated feedback loops linking trophic interactions with ecosystem nutrient dynamics. Similarly, although the positive effect of consumer diversity on ecosystem function has long been recognized, recent advances using DNA barcoding to elucidate diet, and Global Positioning System/remote sensing to determine habitat selection and impact, have shown that herbivore communities are probably even more functionally diverse than currently realized. Moreover, although most diversity-function studies continue to emphasize plant diversity, herbivore diversity may have even stronger impacts on ecosystem multifunctionality. Recent studies also highlight the role of risk in plant-herbivore interactions, and risk-driven trophic cascades have emerged as landscape-scale patterns in a variety of ecosystems. Perhaps not surprisingly, many plant-herbivore interactions are currently being altered by climate change, which affects plant growth rates and resource allocation, expression of chemical defenses, plant phenology, and herbivore metabolism and behavior. Finally, we conclude by noting that although the field is advancing rapidly, the world is changing even more rapidly, challenging our ability to manage these pivotal links in the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deron E. Burkepile
- Department of Ecology, Evolution, and Marine Biology, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
- Marine Science Institute, University of California Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, CA, USA
| | - John D. Parker
- Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, Edgewater, MD, USA
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23
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Flagel DG, Belovsky GE, Cramer MJ, Beyer DE, Robertson KE. Fear and loathing in a Great Lakes forest: cascading effects of competition between wolves and coyotes. J Mammal 2016. [DOI: 10.1093/jmammal/gyw162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
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24
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Digging Further into Wolf-Deer Interactions: Food Web Effects on Soil Nitrogen Availability in a Great Lakes Forest. AMERICAN MIDLAND NATURALIST 2016. [DOI: 10.1674/0003-0031-176.1.147] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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