Rituximab in children with steroid sensitive nephrotic syndrome: in quest of the optimal regimen

Renal relapse in children and adolescents with childhood-onset lupus nephritis: a 20-year study

OBJECTIVES

There is little data on renal relapse in childhood-onset LN (cLN). We investigate the incidence, predictive factors and outcomes related to renal relapse.

METHODS

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of all cLN diagnosed at ≤18 years between 2001-2021 to investigate the incidence and outcomes related to renal relapse.

RESULTS

Ninety-five Chinese cLN patients (91% proliferative LN) were included. Induction immunosuppression was prednisolone and CYC [n = 36 (38%)] or MMF [n = 33 (35%)]. Maintenance immunosuppression was prednisolone and MMF [n = 53 (54%)] or AZA [n = 29 (31%)]. The rates of complete remission/partial remission (CR/PR) at 12 months were 78.9%/7.4%. Seventy renal relapses occurred in 39 patients over a follow-up of 10.2 years (s.d. 5.9) (0.07 episode/patient-year). Relapse-free survival was 94.7, 86.0, 80.1, 71.2, 68.3, 50.3 and 44.5% at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 10 and 20 years, respectively. Multivariate analysis showed that LN diagnosis <13.1 years [adjusted hazard ratio (HRadj) 2.59 995% CI 1.27, 5.29), P = 0.01], AZA maintenance [HRadj 2.20 (95% CI 1.01, 4.79), P = 0.05], PR [HRadj 3.9 (95% CI 1.03, 9.19), P = 0.01] and non-remission [HRadj 3.08 (95% CI 1.35, 11.3), P = 0.04] at 12 months were predictive of renal relapse. Renal relapse was significantly associated with advanced chronic kidney disease (stages 3-5) and end-stage kidney disease (17.9% vs 1.8%, P < 0.01). Furthermore, patients with renal relapse showed an increased incidence of infections (30.8% vs 10.7%, P = 0.02), osteopenia (38.5% vs 17.9%, P = 0.04) and hypertension (30.8% vs 7.1%, P < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

Renal relapse is common among cLN, especially among young patients, and is associated with an increased incidence of morbidity and mortality. Attaining CR and the use of MMF appear to decrease the incidence of renal relapse.

Managing Lupus Nephritis in Children and Adolescents

Lupus nephritis is an important manifestation of systemic lupus erythematosus, which leads to chronic kidney disease, kidney failure, and can result in mortality. About 35%-60% of children with systemic lupus erythematosus develop kidney involvement. Over the past few decades, the outcome of patients with lupus nephritis has improved significantly with advances in immunosuppressive therapies and clinical management. Nonetheless, there is a paucity of high-level evidence to guide the management of childhood-onset lupus nephritis, because of the relatively small number of patients at each centre and also because children and adolescents are often excluded from clinical trials. Children and adults differ in more ways than just size, and there are remarkable differences between childhood- and adult-onset lupus nephritis in terms of disease severity, treatment efficacy, tolerance to medications and most importantly, psychosocial perspective. In this article, we review the 'art and science' of managing childhood-onset lupus nephritis, which has evolved in recent years, and highlight special considerations in this specific patient population.

Long-term outcomes with rituximab as add-on therapy in severe childhood-onset lupus nephritis

BACKGROUND

Long-term data pertaining to rituximab as add-on therapy in childhood-onset lupus nephritis (cLN) is scarce.

METHODS

A retrospective cohort study was conducted on all patients with proliferative cLN, diagnosed ≤ 18 years and between 2005 and 2021, who received rituximab for LN episodes that were life/organ threatening and/or treatment resistant to standard immunosuppression.

RESULTS

Fourteen patients with cLN (female, n = 10) were included, with median follow-up period of 6.9 years. LN episodes (class III, n = 1; class IV, n = 11; class IV + V, n = 2) requiring rituximab occurred at 15.6 years (IQR 12.8-17.3), urine protein:creatinine ratio was 8.2 mg/mg (IQR 3.4-10.1) and eGFR was 28 mL/min/1.73 m2 (IQR 24-69) prior to rituximab treatment. Ten and four patients received rituximab at 1500 mg/m2 and 750 mg/m2, which were given at 46.5 days (IQR 19-69) after commencement of standard therapies. Treatment with rituximab resulted in improvements in proteinuria (ps < 0.001), eGFR (ps < 0.01) and serological parameters, including haemoglobin levels, complement 3 levels and anti-dsDNA antibodies, compared with baseline. Rates of complete/partial remission at 6-, 12- and 24-month post-rituximab were 28.6/42.8%, 64.2/21.4% and 69.2/15.3%. All three patients who required acute kidney replacement therapy became dialysis-free after rituximab. Relapse rate following rituximab was 0.11 episodes/patient-year. There was no lethal complication or severe infusion reaction. Hypogammaglobulinaemia was the most frequent complication (45%) but was mostly asymptomatic. Neutropenia and infections were observed in 20% and 25% of treatments. Upon last follow-up, three (21%) and two (14%) patients developed chronic kidney disease (stage 2, n = 2; stage 4; n = 1) and kidney failure, respectively.

CONCLUSION

Add-on rituximab is an effective and safe rescue therapy for cLN patients with life-/organ-threatening manifestations or treatment-resistance. A higher resolution version of the Graphical abstract is available as Supplementary information.

Childhood nephrotic syndrome

Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome is the most common glomerular disease in children. Corticosteroids are the cornerstone of its treatment, and steroid response is the main prognostic factor. Most children respond to a cycle of oral steroids, and are defined as having steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome. Among the children who do not respond, defined as having steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, most respond to second-line immunosuppression, mainly with calcineurin inhibitors, and children in whom a response is not observed are described as multidrug resistant. The pathophysiology of nephrotic syndrome remains elusive. In cases of immune-mediated origin, dysregulation of immune cells and production of circulating factors that damage the glomerular filtration barrier have been described. Conversely, up to a third of cases of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome have a monogenic origin. Multidrug resistant nephrotic syndrome often leads to kidney failure and can cause relapse after kidney transplant. Although steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome does not affect renal function, most children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome have a relapsing course that requires repeated steroid cycles with significant side-effects. To minimise morbidity, some patients require steroid-sparing immunosuppressive agents, including levamisole, mycophenolate mofetil, calcineurin inhibitors, anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, and cyclophosphamide. Close monitoring and preventive measures are warranted at onset and during relapse to prevent acute complications (eg, hypovolaemia, acute kidney injury, infections, and thrombosis), whereas long-term management requires minimising treatment-related side-effects. A subset of patients have active disease into adulthood.

Age and memory B cells at baseline are associated with risk of relapse and memory B-cell reappearance following anti-CD20 treatment in pediatric frequently-relapsing/steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome

B-cell depleting anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, such as rituximab, have proven efficacy in children with frequently-relapsing/steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome (FR/SDNS). However, drug-free remission is variable and specific baseline markers predictive of relapse after anti-CD20 treatment are still being defined. To clarify these, we performed a bicentric observational study in a large cohort of 102 children and young adults with FR/SDNS treated with anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies (rituximab and ofatumumab). Sixty-two patients (60.8%) relapsed during a 24-month period (median [interquartile range] relapse-free survival, 14.4 months [7.9-24.0]). A lower risk of relapse was significantly associated with an older age (over 9.8 years, hazard ratio, 0.44; 95% confidence interval, 0.26-0.74) and a higher risk of relapse was significantly associated with higher circulating levels of memory B cells (1.14; 1.09-1.32) at time of anti-CD20 infusion, independent of time elapsed from onset, previous anti-CD20 treatment, type of administered anti-CD20 monoclonal antibodies, and previous or maintenance oral immunosuppression. Patients younger than 9.8 years at anti-CD20 infusion had a subsequent higher recovery of total, transitional, mature-naïve and memory B-cell subsets independent of previous anti-CD20 treatment and maintenance immunosuppression. Significantly, younger age and higher circulating levels of memory B cells at time of anti-CD20 infusion were also independently associated with the recovery of memory B cells by linear mixed-effects modelling. Thus, both younger age and higher circulating levels of memory B cells at time of infusion are independently associated with a higher risk of relapse and an earlier recovery of memory B cells following anti-CD20 treatment in children with FR/SDNS.

Use of Rituximab in Childhood Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome

Rituximab is an established therapy in children with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome to sustain short- to medium-term disease remission and avoid steroid toxicities. Recent trials focus on its use as a first-line agent among those with milder disease severity. Rituximab is used in multidrug refractory nephrotic syndrome and post-transplant disease recurrence, although the evidence is much less substantial. Available data suggest that the treatment response to rituximab depends on various patient factors, dosing regimen, and the concomitant use of maintenance immunosuppression. After repeated treatments, patients are found to have an improving response overall with a longer relapse-free period. The drug effect, however, is not permanent, and 80% of patients eventually relapse and many will require an additional course of rituximab. This underpins the importance of understanding the long-term safety profile on repeated treatments. Although rituximab appears to be generally safe, there are concerns about long-term hypogammaglobulinemia, especially in young children. Reliable immunophenotyping and biomarkers are yet to be discovered to predict treatment success, risk of both rare and severe side effects, e.g. , persistent hypogammaglobulinemia, and guiding of redosing strategy. In this review, we highlight recent advances in the use of rituximab for childhood nephrotic syndrome and how the therapeutic landscape is evolving.

IPNA clinical practice recommendations for the diagnosis and management of children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome

Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome is the most frequent pediatric glomerular disease, affecting from 1.15 to 16.9 per 100,000 children per year globally. It is characterized by massive proteinuria, hypoalbuminemia, and/or concomitant edema. Approximately 85-90% of patients attain complete remission of proteinuria within 4-6 weeks of treatment with glucocorticoids, and therefore, have steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS). Among those patients who are steroid sensitive, 70-80% will have at least one relapse during follow-up, and up to 50% of these patients will experience frequent relapses or become dependent on glucocorticoids to maintain remission. The dose and duration of steroid treatment to prolong time between relapses remains a subject of much debate, and patients continue to experience a high prevalence of steroid-related morbidity. Various steroid-sparing immunosuppressive drugs have been used in clinical practice; however, there is marked practice variation in the selection of these drugs and timing of their introduction during the course of the disease. Therefore, international evidence-based clinical practice recommendations (CPRs) are needed to guide clinical practice and reduce practice variation. The International Pediatric Nephrology Association (IPNA) convened a team of experts including pediatric nephrologists, an adult nephrologist, and a patient representative to develop comprehensive CPRs on the diagnosis and management of SSNS in children. After performing a systematic literature review on 12 clinically relevant PICO (Patient or Population covered, Intervention, Comparator, Outcome) questions, recommendations were formulated and formally graded at several virtual consensus meetings. New definitions for treatment outcomes to help guide change of therapy and recommendations for important research questions are given.

Long-Term Outcomes of Children and Adolescents With Biopsy-Proven Childhood-Onset Lupus Nephritis

Introduction

Long-term data pertaining to childhood-onset lupus nephritis (cLN) remain extremely scarce.

Methods

We conducted a retrospective cohort study of biopsy-proven cLN with onset age <18 years diagnosed from 2001 to 2020 to ascertain the long-term patient and kidney survival rates, and the incidence of advanced chronic kidney disease (CKD) (estimated glomerular filtration rate [eGFR] <60 ml/min per 1.73 m²).

Results

A total of 92 subjects (78 female; age 13.7 ± 3.3 years; all Chinese) were included, with follow-up duration of 10.3 years (interquartile range, 5.8-15.9). Of these, 83 children (90%) had proliferative lupus nephritis (LN) (Class III/IV ± V). Mycophenolate was used for induction in 36%, whereas 34% received cyclophosphamide (CYC); 55% received mycophenolate as maintenance immunosuppression. The rates of complete remission (CR) and partial remission (PR) at 6 months and 12 months, respectively, were 65% and 20% and 78% and 8%. Two patients died (mortality rate 2.1/1000 patient-years), with a standardized mortality ratio of 22.3. Three patients (3.2%) developed end-stage kidney disease (ESKD), and advanced CKD occurred in 5 patients (5.4%). Survival rates without advanced CKD, ESKD, or death were 96.7%, 94.2%, 92.7%, 83.2% and 83.2% at 1 year, 5 years, 10 years, 15 years, and 20 years, respectively. Multivariate analysis revealed that severe kidney failure necessitating dialysis at presentation (adjusted hazard ratio 37.7, 95% confidence interval [CI] 4.0-355.6, P = 0.002), nonresponse (NR) after 12 months of treatment (adjusted hazard ratio 11.2, 95% CI 2.3-54.9, P = 0.003), and multiple nephritis flares (adjusted hazard ratio 2.6, 95% CI 1.1-6.2, P = 0.03) were predictive of advanced CKD, ESKD, or death. Other adverse outcomes included infections (2.9 episodes/100 patient-years), osteopenia (32%), hypertension (17%), short stature (14%), and avascular necrosis (7%).

Conclusion

The long-term outcomes of cLN appeared to have improved in the present era with effective immunosuppression, cautious drug tapering, and assurance of medication adherence. There is still an unacceptably high prevalence of adverse outcomes.

Long-term obesity prevalence and linear growth in children with idiopathic nephrotic syndrome: is normal growth and weight control possible with steroid-sparing drugs and low-dose steroids for relapses?

BACKGROUND

Long-term steroid treatment in children is known to cause obesity and negatively affect growth. The objective of this study was to determine the prevalence of obesity and overweight and analyze linear growth in children with nephrotic syndrome.

METHODS

The study involved 265 children treated with glucocorticoids for nephrotic syndrome for a mean duration of 43 months (range: 6-167, IQR: 17, 63.3). Height, weight, and BMI SDS were recorded at each visit. Rate of change between the final and initial height, weight, and BMI was calculated (Δ score). The cumulative steroid dose (mg/kg/day) during follow-up was calculated. Relapses without significant edema were treated with low-dose steroids and steroid-sparing drugs were used in children with steroid dependency/frequent relapses.

RESULTS

Mean first BMI SDS was + 1.40 ± 1.30 and final + 0.79 ± 1.30. At initial assessment, 41.4% of the patients were obese (BMI ≥ 95^th percentile) and 19.5% were overweight (BMI 85^th-95^th percentile). At the last clinical visit, 24% were obese and 17% overweight. The children had lower BMI SDS at last clinical visit compared to initial assessment. Mean first height SDS of the cohort was - 0.11 ± 1.22 and final score 0.078 ± 1.14 (p < 0.0001). Almost 85% of patients were treated with steroid-sparing drugs.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that children with nephrotic syndrome, despite a need for steroid treatment for active disease, can improve their obesity and overweight and also improve their linear growth from their first to last visit with us.

Long-term Efficacy and Safety of Repeated Rituximab to Maintain Remission in Idiopathic Childhood Nephrotic Syndrome: An International Study

Background: Long-term outcomes following multiple rituximab courses among children with frequently-relapsing, steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome (FRSDNS) are unknown. Methods: A retrospective cohort study at 16 pediatric nephrology centers from 10 countries in Asia, Europe, and North America included children with FRSDNS who received ≥2 rituximab courses. Primary outcomes were relapse-free survival and adverse events. Results: 346 children (age 9.8 years, IQR 6.6-13.5; 73% boys) received 1149 rituximab courses. 145, 83, 50, 28, 22, and 18 children received 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 and ≥7 courses, respectively. Median follow-up was 5.9 years (IQR, 4.3-7.7). Relapse-free survival differed by treatment courses (clustered log-rank test p<0.001). Compared to the first course (10.0 months, 95% CI, 9.0-10.7), relapse-free period and relapse risk progressively improved following subsequent courses (12.0-16.0 months; HRadj, 0.03-0.13; 95% CI, 0.01-0.18; ps<0.001). B-cell depletion duration remained similar with repeated treatments (6.1 months, 95% CI, 6.0-6.3). Adverse events were mostly mild, most commonly hypogammaglobulinemia (50.9%), infection (4.5%), and neutropenia (3.7%). Side effects did not increase with more treatment courses nor higher cumulative dose. Only 78 of the 353 episodes of hypogammaglobulinemia were clinically significant. Younger age at presentation (2.8 vs 3.3 years; p=0.05) and at first rituximab (8.0 y vs 10.0 years; p=0.01) and history of steroid resistance (28% vs 18%; p=0.01) were associated with significant hypogammaglobulinemia. All 53 infective episodes resolved, except one patient with hepatitis B infection and another with EBV infection. There were 42 episodes of neutropenia, associated with history of steroid resistance (30% vs 20%, p=0.04). Upon last follow-up, 332 children (96%) had normal kidney function. Conclusion: Children receiving repeated rituximab for FRSDNS experience an improving clinical response. Side effects appear acceptable but significant complications can occur. These findings support repeated rituximab use in FRSDNS.

Update on the treatment of steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome

Steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS) is a rare condition that develops primarily in preadolescent children after the age of 1 year. Since the 1950s, oral corticosteroids have been the mainstay of treatment of all children presenting with nephrotic syndrome, with most patients responding within 4 weeks to an oral course of prednisone (PDN). However, corticosteroids have important side effects and 60-80 % of patients relapse, developing frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent forms. For these reasons, many patients require second-line steroid-sparing immunosuppressive medications that have considerably improved relapse-free survival, while avoiding many PDN-related toxicities. Since most patients will eventually heal from their disease with a normal kidney function, the morbidity of SSNS is primarily related to side effects of drugs that are used to maintain prolonged remission. Therefore, treatment is essentially based on balancing the use of different drugs to achieve permanent remission with the lowest cumulative number of side effects. Treatment choice is based on the severity of SSNS, on patient age, and on drug tolerability. This review provides an update of currently available therapeutic strategies for SSNS.

Mycophenolate Mofetil after Rituximab for Childhood-Onset Complicated Frequently-Relapsing or Steroid-Dependent Nephrotic Syndrome

BACKGROUND

Rituximab is the standard therapy for childhood-onset complicated frequently relapsing or steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome (FRNS/SDNS). However, most patients redevelop FRNS/SDNS after peripheral B cell recovery.

METHODS

We conducted a multicenter, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial to examine whether mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) administration after rituximab can prevent treatment failure (FRNS, SDNS, steroid resistance, or use of immunosuppressive agents or rituximab). In total, 39 patients (per group) were treated with rituximab, followed by either MMF or placebo until day 505 (treatment period). The primary outcome was time to treatment failure (TTF) throughout the treatment and follow-up periods (until day 505 for the last enrolled patient).

RESULTS

TTFs were clinically but not statistically significantly longer among patients given MMF after rituximab than among patients receiving rituximab monotherapy (median, 784.0 versus 472.5 days, hazard ratio [HR], 0.59; 95% confidence interval [95% CI], 0.34 to 1.05, log-rank test: P=0.07). Because most patients in the MMF group presented with treatment failure after MMF discontinuation, we performed a post-hoc analysis limited to the treatment period and found that MMF after rituximab prolonged the TTF and decreased the risk of treatment failure by 80% (HR, 0.20; 95% CI, 0.08 to 0.50). Moreover, MMF after rituximab reduced the relapse rate and daily steroid dose during the treatment period by 74% and 57%, respectively. The frequency and severity of adverse events were similar in both groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Administration of MMF after rituximab may sufficiently prevent the development of treatment failure and is well tolerated, although the relapse-preventing effect disappears after MMF discontinuation.

Efficacy of rituximab therapy in children with nephrotic syndrome: a 10-year experience from an Iranian pediatric hospital

Background

There are controversy results in the optimal management of children with steroid-dependent and steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome (SDNS, SRNS). This study aimed to determine the efficacy and safety of rituximab (RTX) in these pediatric patients.

Methods

Medical records of 1–18-year-old Iranian children with SDNS (n = 26) and SRNS (n = 22) with a follow-up for at least 24 months were included from 2009 to 2019. The short- and long-term responses to RTX were respectively evaluated to determine the random protein-to-creatinine ratio after 6 and 24 months and classified as complete (CR) and partial (PR) remission or no response.

Results

Male patients (n = 26) were slightly predominate. The median age of patients at the time of RTX therapy was 8.6 ± 4.01 years. At the end of the 6-month follow-up, CR and PR occurred in 23 (47.9%) and 12 (25%) patients, respectively. Of 23 patients with CR, 18 (69.2%) and 5(22.7%) had SDNS and SRNS, respectively (p < 0.005). However, only 18 (37.5%) of patients after 24 months had been in CR. No significant difference in the CR rate was found between the two groups. RTX was more effective when administered during the proteinuria-free period (p = 0.001).

Conclusion

In the short term, RTX significantly was efficient in inducing complete or PR in SDNS and SRNS patients. However, the favorable response rate in a long-term follow-up was insignificantly lower between the two groups.

Idiopathic Nephrotic Syndrome in Pediatrics: An Up-to-date

BACKGROUND

Idiopathic or Primary Nephrotic Syndrome (INS) is a common glomerular disease in pediatric population, characterized by proteinuria, edema and hypoalbuminemia with variable findings in renal histopathology.

OBJECTIVE

This review aims to summarize current data on the etiopathogenesis diagnosis, protocols of treatment and potential therapeutic advances in INS.

METHODS

This narrative review searched for articles on histopathology, physiopathology, genetic causes, diagnosis and treatment of INS in pediatric patients. The databases evaluated were PubMed and Scopus.

RESULTS

INS is caused by an alteration in the permeability of the glomerular filtration barrier with unknown etiology. There are several gaps in the etiopathogenesis, response to treatment and clinical course of INS that justify further investigation. Novel advances include the recent understanding of the role of podocytes in INS and the identification of genes associated with the disease. The role of immune system cells and molecules has also been investigated. The diagnosis relies on clinical findings, laboratory exams and renal histology for selected cases. The treatment is primarily based on steroids administration. In case of failure, other medications should be tried. Recent studies have also searched for novel biomarkers for diagnosis and alternative therapeutic approaches.

CONCLUSION

The therapeutic response to corticosteroids still remains the main predictive factor for the prognosis of the disease. Genetic and pharmacogenomics tools may allow the identification of cases not responsive to immunosuppressive medications.

Practice variations in the management of childhood nephrotic syndrome in the Netherlands

Nephrotic syndrome in childhood is a common entity in the field of pediatric nephrology. The optimal treatment of children with nephrotic syndrome is often debated. Previously conducted studies have shown significant variability in nephrotic syndrome management, especially in the choice of steroid-sparing drugs. In the Netherlands, a practice guideline on the management of childhood nephrotic syndrome has been available since 2010. The aim of this study was to identify practice variations and opportunities to improve clinical practice of childhood nephrotic syndrome in the Netherlands. A digital structured survey among Dutch pediatricians and pediatric nephrologists was performed, including questions regarding the initial treatment, relapse treatment, kidney biopsy, additional immunosuppressive treatment, and supportive care. Among the 51 responses, uniformity was seen in the management of a first presentation and first relapse. Wide variation was found in the tapering of steroids after alternate day dosing. Most pediatricians and pediatric nephrologists (83%) would perform a kidney biopsy in case of steroid-resistant nephrotic syndrome, whereas for frequent relapsing and steroid-dependent nephrotic syndrome this was 22% and 41%, respectively. Variation was reported in the steroid-sparing treatment. Finally, significant differences were present in the supportive treatment of nephrotic syndrome.Conclusion: Substantial variation was present in the management of nephrotic syndrome in the Netherlands. Differences were identified in steroid tapering, use of steroid coverage during stress, choice of steroid-sparing agents, and biopsy practice. To promote guideline adherence and reduce practice variation, factors driving this variation should be assessed and resolved. What is Known: • National and international guidelines are available to guide the management of childhood nephrotic syndrome. • Several aspects of the management of childhood nephrotic syndrome, including the choice of steroid-sparing drugs and biopsy practice, are controversial and often debated among physicians. What is New: • Significant practice variation is present in the management of childhood nephrotic syndrome in the Netherlands, especially in the treatment of FRNS, SDNS, and SRNS. • The recommendation on the steroid treatment of a first episode of nephrotic syndrome in the KDIGO guideline leaves room for interpretation and is likely the cause of substantial differences in steroid-tapering practices among Dutch pediatricians and pediatric nephrologists.

Pediatric idiopathic steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome: diagnosis and therapy -short version of the updated German best practice guideline (S2e) - AWMF register no. 166-001, 6/2020

Idiopathic nephrotic syndrome is the most frequent glomerular disease in children in most parts of the world. Children with steroid-sensitive nephrotic syndrome (SSNS) generally have a good prognosis regarding the maintenance of normal kidney function even in the case of frequent relapses. The course of SSNS is often complicated by a high rate of relapses and the associated side effects of repeated glucocorticoid (steroid) therapy. The following recommendations for the treatment of SSNS are based on the comprehensive consideration of published evidence by a working group of the German Society for Pediatric Nephrology (GPN) based on the systematic Cochrane reviews on SSNS and the guidelines of the KDIGO working group (Kidney Disease - Improving Global Outcomes).