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Geissler N, Ruff J, Walochnik J, Ludwig W, Auer H, Wiedermann U, Geissler W. Autochthonous Human Dirofilaria repens Infection in Austria. Acta Parasitol 2022; 67:1039-1043. [PMID: 35020126 PMCID: PMC9165251 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-021-00506-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2021] [Accepted: 12/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE This report describes a rare autochthonous case of human D. repens infection in Austria. Dirofilariosis is a mosquito-borne parasitic infection that predominantly affects dogs. Human D. repens infections have primarily been reported in Mediterranean countries, but are emerging throughout Central and Northern Europe. METHODS The worm was removed surgically and identified using PCR and DNA sequencing. The consensus sequences were compared against reference sequences of Dirofilaria repens from GenBank. RESULTS The 56-year-old woman acquired the infection, which presented as a subcutaneous nodule, in Vienna, Austria. This is the second autochthonous case of human D. repens infection in Austria. CONCLUSION The reasons for the emergence of D. repens and other parasitic infections in Central and Northern Europe are manifold, including climate change and globalization. This case demonstrates that with the growing number of D. repens infections, health care professionals must place further emphasis on emerging infectious diseases to ensure appropriate diagnostics and treatment in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nora Geissler
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Johanna Ruff
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Walochnik
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Wilhelm Ludwig
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Herbert Auer
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Ursula Wiedermann
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Sonnberger BW, Wortha LN, Rackl D, Obwaller AG, Joachim A, Fuehrer HP. Vector Surveillance and Pathogen Detection in the Working Areas of Military Working Dogs in Eastern Austria. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11050506. [PMID: 35631026 PMCID: PMC9143989 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11050506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Vector-borne diseases play a major role in human and veterinary medicine worldwide. A previous study detected asymptomatic vector-borne pathogens in military working dogs stationed at a military base in eastern Austria, and a follow-up survey of potential arthropod vectors was conducted in spring 2019 and 2020 in the vicinity of the base to evaluate the presence of vectors and their carrier status for a range of canine and zoonotic pathogens. A total of 1324 ticks (nymphs and adults of Ixodes ricinus, comprising 92.9% of the collected specimens, and adults of Haemaphysalis inermis, a tick previously only rarely described in Austria, Haemaphysalis concinna, and Dermacentor reticulatus) were collected by flagging. In 44.1% (125/284) of all pools (n = 284), one infectious agent was found; in 27.8% (79/284) and in 1.1% (3/284), two and three different agents, respectively, could be identified. Overall, 72.9% of the pools contained at least one pathogen (Borrelia spp., Rickettsia spp., Bartonella spp., and Babesia microti). Borrelia mijamotoi, B. lustinaniae, and B. microti were previously only described in single cases in Austria. Mosquitoes were collected with BG-Sentinel traps monthly during the summer of 2019. A total of 71 individuals from 11 species were collected. No filarioid DNA was detected in the mosquito sample pools, although Dirofilaria repens had been present in the dogs from the military site. In conclusion, vector surveillance should be combined with the surveillance of an exposed population whenever possible to estimate the infection risks for dogs and their handlers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernhard W. Sonnberger
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.W.S.); (L.N.W.); (A.J.)
- Office of the State Government of Upper Austria, Department of Food Security and Veterinary Affairs, Directorate Social Affairs and Health, 4021 Linz, Austria
| | - Licha N. Wortha
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.W.S.); (L.N.W.); (A.J.)
| | - Dietmar Rackl
- Veterinary Service, Joint Support Command, Federal Ministry of Defense, 1120 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Adelheid G. Obwaller
- Research and Development, Division of Science, Federal Ministry of Defense, 1090 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Anja Joachim
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.W.S.); (L.N.W.); (A.J.)
| | - Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (B.W.S.); (L.N.W.); (A.J.)
- Correspondence:
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3
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Fuehrer HP, Morelli S, Unterköfler MS, Bajer A, Bakran-Lebl K, Dwużnik-Szarek D, Farkas R, Grandi G, Heddergott M, Jokelainen P, Knific T, Leschnik M, Miterpáková M, Modrý D, Petersen HH, Skírnisson K, Vergles Rataj A, Schnyder M, Strube C. Dirofilaria spp. and Angiostrongylus vasorum: Current Risk of Spreading in Central and Northern Europe. Pathogens 2021; 10:1268. [PMID: 34684217 PMCID: PMC8537668 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10101268] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In the past few decades, the relevance of Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens, causing cardiopulmonary and subcutaneous dirofilariosis in dogs and cats, and of Angiostrongylus vasorum, causing canine angiostrongylosis, has steadily increased in Central and Northern Europe. In this review, a summary of published articles and additional reports dealing with imported or autochthonous cases of these parasites is provided for Central (Austria, Czechia, Germany, Hungary, Luxemburg, Poland, Slovakia, Slovenia, and Switzerland) and Northern (Denmark, Finland, Iceland, Norway, and Sweden) Europe. Research efforts focusing on Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum have varied by country, and cross-border studies are few. The housing conditions of dogs, pet movements, the spread of competent vectors, and climate change are important factors in the spread of these nematodes. Dogs kept outside overnight are a major factor for the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. However, the establishment of invasive, diurnal, synanthropic, competent mosquito vectors such as Aedes albopictus may also influence the establishment of Dirofilaria spp. The drivers of the spread of A. vasorum remain not fully understood, but it seems to be influenced by habitats shared with wild canids, dog relocation, and possibly climatic changes; its pattern of spreading appears to be similar in different countries. Both Dirofilaria spp. and A. vasorum merit further monitoring and research focus in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.S.U.); (K.B.-L.)
| | - Simone Morelli
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Teramo, 64100 Teramo, Italy;
| | - Maria Sophia Unterköfler
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.S.U.); (K.B.-L.)
| | - Anna Bajer
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (A.B.); (D.D.-S.)
| | - Karin Bakran-Lebl
- Department of Pathobiology, Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria; (M.S.U.); (K.B.-L.)
| | - Dorota Dwużnik-Szarek
- Department of Eco-Epidemiology of Parasitic Diseases, Institute of Developmental Biology and Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, University of Warsaw, Miecznikowa 1, 02-096 Warsaw, Poland; (A.B.); (D.D.-S.)
| | - Róbert Farkas
- Department of Parasitology and Zoology, University of Veterinary Medicine, 1078 Budapest, Hungary;
| | - Giulio Grandi
- Section for Parasitology, Department of Biomedical Sciences and Veterinary Public Health, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (SLU), 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden;
- Department of Microbiology, National Veterinary Institute (SVA), 756 51 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Mike Heddergott
- Department of Zoology, Musée National d’Historire Naturelle, 25, Rue Münster, 2160 Luxembourg, Luxembourg;
| | - Pikka Jokelainen
- Department of Bacteria, Parasites and Fungi, Infectious Disease Preparedness, Statens Serum Institut, Artillerivej 5, DK-2300 Copenhagen S, Denmark;
| | - Tanja Knific
- Institute of Food Safety, Feed and Environment, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Michael Leschnik
- Clinical Unit of Internal Medicine Small Animals, Department/Universitätsklinik für Kleintiere und Pferde, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria;
| | - Martina Miterpáková
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, 040 01 Košice, Slovakia;
| | - David Modrý
- Biology Center, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, 37005 Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic;
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Agrobiology, Food and Natural Resources/CINeZ, Czech University of Life Sciences Prague, 16500 Praha-Suchdol, Czech Republic
- Department of Botany and Zoology, Faculty of Science, Masaryk University, 61137 Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Heidi Huus Petersen
- Centre for Diagnostic, Department of Health Technology, Technical University of Denmark, 2800 Kongens Lyngby, Denmark;
| | - Karl Skírnisson
- Institute for Experimental Pathology at Keldur, University of Iceland, Keldnavegur 3, 112 Reykjavik, Iceland;
| | - Aleksandra Vergles Rataj
- Institute of Microbiology and Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Gerbičeva 60, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
| | - Manuela Schnyder
- Institute of Parasitology, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Zurich, 8057 Zürich, Switzerland;
| | - Christina Strube
- Centre for Infection Medicine, Institute for Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany;
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The Incidence of Dirofilaria immitis in Shelter Dogs and Mosquitoes in Austria. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10050550. [PMID: 34063187 PMCID: PMC8147468 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10050550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
To estimate the incidence of Dirofilaria immitis in Austrian shelter dogs and mosquitoes trapped in their proximity, 115 shelter dogs from fourteen animal shelters located in five different Austrian states were examined. Blood samples were screened for D. immitis using ELISA antigen-testing, PCR and microscopical examination for microfilariae. In total, 91% of the dogs originated from countries endemic for dirofilariosis. Eleven dogs (9.6%), all originating from Hungary, tested positive for D. immitis. None of the dogs examined showed microfilaremia. Eight dogs showed no or only mild clinical signs (e.g., infrequent coughing), and three dogs showed frequent coughing, dyspnea, exercise intolerance, blunt fur or weight loss. In total, 205 Mosquitoes of ten different species were caught at five different shelter sites in four different Austrian states, using CO2-baited mosquito traps set once a month (June–September 2019) for 24 h. All 205 mosquitoes tested negative for Dirofilaria spp. via PCR. The risk of endemisation of D. immitis in Austria (and other non-endemic countries in a similar situation) is very serious and its zoonotic potential should be communicated more strongly. To monitor a possible transmission of microfilariae from untreated or even untested positive dogs, e.g., in animal shelters, to mosquitoes in the near surroundings, frequent screening for Dirofilaria in mosquitoes should be used more intensively. Current knowledge on D. immitis should be integrated into daily veterinary practice and dog owners should be proactively educated, especially before traveling to endemic areas or adopting dogs from endemic countries. Animal shelters and animal welfare organizations should be provided with appropriate education and veterinary guidance regarding the testing and treatment of dogs imported from high-risk areas.
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Riebenbauer K, Weber PB, Walochnik J, Karlhofer F, Winkler S, Dorfer S, Auer H, Valencak J, Laimer M, Handisurya A. Human dirofilariosis in Austria: the past, the present, the future. Parasit Vectors 2021; 14:227. [PMID: 33926526 PMCID: PMC8082911 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-021-04696-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Dirofilariosis is a vector-borne parasitosis caused by filarial nematodes of the genus Dirofilaria. In humans, who represent accidental hosts, dirofilariosis is mostly caused by Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis. In Austria, the first reported case occurred in 1978. Since then, several (case) reports have been published. Methods A systematic and retrospective review of collected published cases and new, unpublished confirmed cases of human dirofilariosis occurring in Austria was performed. A nematode was extracted from the eyelid of a previously unreported case and subsequently characterized histologically and using molecular biology techniques. Results Data on a total of 39 cases of human dirofilariosis in Austria occurring between 1978 and 2020 are summarized. Over the past four decades the incidence has markedly increased, in particular after 1998. Of the 39 patients, men and women were equally affected, and the mean age was 47.1 years. The area most frequently affected was the head (38.5% of cases). Confined ocular involvement was observed in 23.1% of cases, and nematodes were isolated from the neck/trunk, extremities and the genito-inguinal area in 25.6, 15.4 and 15.4% of patients, respectively. Microfilariae were detected in two cases. Of the 39 patients, only 73.9% tested positive for anti-filarial antibodies and 56.3% for eosinophilia, despite successful isolation of a nematode; consequently, these measures did not represent reliable markers for dirofilariosis. Most patients had a travel history to countries endemic for Dirofilaria species. One patient who had not traveled abroad represented the only autochthonous case recorded to date. Dirofilaria repens was the predominant species, identified in 89.7% of cases. In the newly reported case of subcutaneous dirofilariosis, a live non-gravid Dirofilaria repens adult female of 12 cm length was isolated from the eyelid of the patient, and a video of the extraction is provided. Conclusions The incidence of human dirofilariosis cases has increased strikingly over the last four decades in Austria. More cases can be expected in the foreseeable future due to changes in human behavior and (travel) activities as well as climate changes and the associated alterations in the availability of the natural reservoir, the vectors and the intrinsic characteristics of the parasite. ![]()
Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s13071-021-04696-4.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Riebenbauer
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Philipp B Weber
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Walochnik
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Franz Karlhofer
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stefan Winkler
- Division of Infectious Diseases and Tropical Medicine, Department of Medicine I, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Sonja Dorfer
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Herbert Auer
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julia Valencak
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Martin Laimer
- Department of Dermatology and Allergology, University Hospital of the Paracelsus Medical University Salzburg, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alessandra Handisurya
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Guertel 18-20, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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Lechner AM, Gastager H, Kern JM, Wagner B, Tappe D. Case Report: Successful Treatment of a Patient with Microfilaremic Dirofilariasis Using Doxycycline. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2020; 102:844-846. [PMID: 32043447 PMCID: PMC7124902 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.19-0744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
We report the case of a 56-year-old woman with microfilaremic dirofilariasis due to Dirofilaria repens, which is a very rare condition in humans. Of note, just one of six large-volume blood samples of this patient was positive for microfilariae. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and sequencing of the parasite gene determined the geographic origin of the causative helminth. The patient was treated successfully with doxycycline. This drug was chosen because of the patient's reluctance to the use of ivermectin and to provide an anthelmintic effect by targeting the bacterial endosymbiont Wolbachia present in most filarial species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arno M Lechner
- Division Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Paracelsus Medizinische Privatuniversität Salzburg, Universitätsinstitut für Medizinisch-Chemische Labordiagnostik, Salzburg, Austria
| | | | - Jan Marco Kern
- Division Medizinische Mikrobiologie, Paracelsus Medizinische Privatuniversität Salzburg, Universitätsinstitut für Medizinisch-Chemische Labordiagnostik, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Birgit Wagner
- Abteilung für Medizinische Parasitologie, Institut für Spezifische Prophylaxe und Tropenmedizin, Zentrum für Pathophysiologie, Infektiologie und Immunologie, Medizinische Universität Wien, Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Dennis Tappe
- Nationales Referenzzentrum für Tropische Infektionserreger, Bernhard-Nocht-Institut für Tropenmedizin, Hamburg, Germany
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Haim A, Kitchen M, Auer H, Rettenbacher T, Schmuth M. A case of human Dirofilaria repens infection, causing an asymptomatic subcutaneous nodule. Parasitol Res 2020; 119:1703-1705. [PMID: 32206885 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-020-06655-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2018] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
We present a case of subcutaneous dirofilariasis, a vector-borne zoonotic disease, in a young woman from Austria. The diagnosis was confirmed by ultrasound and histology of the excised subcutaneous nodule. The parasite species was identified as Dirofilaria repens by polymerase chain reaction. We expect to see more cases of human dirofilariasis also due to climate change and associated increase of the spectrum of suitable mosquito vectors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas Haim
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie, Venerologie und Allergologie. Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Maria Kitchen
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie, Venerologie und Allergologie. Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria.
| | - Herbert Auer
- Institut für spezifische Prophylaxe und Tropenmedizin. Medizinische Universität Wien, Kinderspitalsgasse 15, 1090, Wien, Austria
| | - Thomas Rettenbacher
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie, Venerologie und Allergologie. Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Matthias Schmuth
- Universitätsklinik für Dermatologie, Venerologie und Allergologie. Medizinische Universität Innsbruck, Anichstraße 35, 6020, Innsbruck, Austria
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Sonnberger K, Duscher GG, Fuehrer HP, Leschnik M. Current trends in canine dirofilariosis in Austria-do we face a pre-endemic status? Parasitol Res 2020; 119:1001-1009. [PMID: 32056024 PMCID: PMC7075843 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-019-06576-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 12/10/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
A retrospective study based on cases of canine dirofilariosis presented to the University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna or diagnosed by private practitioners throughout Austria, from 1998 to 2018 was conducted to investigate the long-term development and current state of canine dirofilarial infections in Austria. Included in this study were 146 dogs which were tested positive for D. immitis and/or D. repens. The most commonly used diagnostic methods and the probable geographical origins of the infections were evaluated and the treatment protocols applied were compared with each other and with the literature. The results show that most infections were found due to screening for common travel infections using antigen-ELISA or PCR-testing, or by the incidental finding of microfilariae. Remarkably, only 24.3% of all cases presented showed clinical signs indicating canine dirofilariosis. Regarding the origin and travel history of the dogs, thirteen different countries could be identified. The three treatment protocols used showed a similar outcome after 8 months of treatment and minor side effects, which is consistent with the literature. An alarming increase in reported infections with both D. immitis and D. repens in Austria was noted since 2014. The number of documented cases had almost tripled by 2018, raising severe concerns about the threat of it becoming endemic in Austria. Therefore, the existing recommendations in current guidelines regarding canine dirofilariosis should be widely publicised and more strictly enforced. Prophylactic measures for dogs travelling abroad and diagnostic and therapeutic strategies for dogs imported from endemic countries should be obligatorily established throughout Europe, to reduce the risk of further spread of canine filarial infections to non-endemic regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Sonnberger
- Tierklinik Sattledt Traunkeis Vet Clinic OG, Kirchdorfer Staße 7, 4642 Sattledt, Austria
| | - Georg G. Duscher
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Leschnik
- Internal Medicine Small Animals Department for Companion Animals and Horses, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria
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Capelli G, Genchi C, Baneth G, Bourdeau P, Brianti E, Cardoso L, Danesi P, Fuehrer HP, Giannelli A, Ionică AM, Maia C, Modrý D, Montarsi F, Krücken J, Papadopoulos E, Petrić D, Pfeffer M, Savić S, Otranto D, Poppert S, Silaghi C. Recent advances on Dirofilaria repens in dogs and humans in Europe. Parasit Vectors 2018; 11:663. [PMID: 30567586 PMCID: PMC6299983 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-018-3205-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/19/2018] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Dirofilaria repens is a nematode affecting domestic and wild canids, transmitted by several species of mosquitoes. It usually causes a non-pathogenic subcutaneous infection in dogs and is the principal agent of human dirofilariosis in the Old World. In the last decades, D. repens has increased in prevalence in areas where it has already been reported and its distribution range has expanded into new areas of Europe, representing a paradigmatic example of an emergent pathogen. Despite its emergence and zoonotic impact, D. repens has received less attention by scientists compared to Dirofilaria immitis. In this review we report the recent advances of D. repens infection in dogs and humans, and transmission by vectors, and discuss possible factors that influence the spread and increase of this zoonotic parasite in Europe. There is evidence that D. repens has spread faster than D. immitis from the endemic areas of southern Europe to northern Europe. Climate change affecting mosquito vectors and the facilitation of pet travel seem to have contributed to this expansion; however, in the authors' opinion, the major factor is likely the rate of undiagnosed dogs continuing to perpetuate the life-cycle of D. repens. Many infected dogs remain undetected due to the subclinical nature of the disease, the lack of rapid and reliable diagnostic tools and the poor knowledge and still low awareness of D. repens in non-endemic areas. Improved diagnostic tools are warranted to bring D. repens diagnosis to the state of D. immitis diagnosis, as well as improved screening of imported dogs and promotion of preventative measures among veterinarians and dog owners. For vector-borne diseases involving pets, veterinarians play a significant role in prevention and should be more aware of their responsibility in reducing the impact of the zoonotic agents. In addition, they should enhance multisectorial collaboration with medical entomologists and the public health experts, under the concept and the actions of One Health-One Medicine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gioia Capelli
- Laboratory of Parasitology, National reference centre/OIE collaborating centre for diseases at the animal-human interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Claudio Genchi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milan, Italy
| | - Gad Baneth
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Hebrew University, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Patrick Bourdeau
- Veterinary School of Nantes ONIRIS, University of Nantes, LUNAM, Nantes, France
| | - Emanuele Brianti
- Department of Veterinary Science, Università degli Studi di Messina, Messina, Italy
| | - Luís Cardoso
- Department of Veterinary Sciences, School of Agrarian and Veterinary Sciences, University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, Vila Real, Portugal
| | - Patrizia Danesi
- Laboratory of Parasitology, National reference centre/OIE collaborating centre for diseases at the animal-human interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Institute of Parasitology, University of Veterinary Medicine, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alessio Giannelli
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Angela Monica Ionică
- Department of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, University of Agricultural Sciences and Veterinary Medicine Cluj-Napoca, Cluj-Napoca, Romania
| | - Carla Maia
- Global Health and Tropical Medicine (GHTM), Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical (IHMT), Universidade Nova de Lisboa (UNL), Lisboa, Portugal
| | - David Modrý
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
- Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Fabrizio Montarsi
- Laboratory of Parasitology, National reference centre/OIE collaborating centre for diseases at the animal-human interface, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale delle Venezie, Legnaro, Italy
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Elias Papadopoulos
- Laboratory of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Sciences, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Thessaloniki, Greece
| | - Dušan Petrić
- Laboratory for medical and veterinary entomology, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Novi Sad, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Martin Pfeffer
- Institute of Animal Hygiene and Veterinary Public Health, Veterinary Faculty, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sara Savić
- Scientific Veterinary Institute “Novi Sad”, Novi Sad, Serbia
| | - Domenico Otranto
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Bari, Valenzano, Italy
| | - Sven Poppert
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, Switzerland
- University Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Cornelia Silaghi
- National Centre of Vector Entomology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Institute of Infectology, Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Isle of Riems, Greifswald, Germany
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10
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Winkler S, Pollreisz A, Georgopoulos M, Bagò-Horvath Z, Auer H, To KKW, Krücken J, Poppert S, Walochnik J. Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis as Causative Agent of Human Ocular Filariosis after Travel to India. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 23:1428-1431. [PMID: 28726623 PMCID: PMC5547781 DOI: 10.3201/eid2308.170423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
We report a human case of ocular Dirofilaria infection in a traveler
returning to Austria from India. Analysis of mitochondrial sequences identified the
worm as Candidatus Dirofilaria hongkongensis, a close relative of
Dirofilaria repens, which was only recently described in Hong
Kong and proposed as a new species.
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11
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Miterpáková M, Antolová D, Ondriska F, Gál V. Human Dirofilaria repens infections diagnosed in Slovakia in the last 10 years (2007-2017). Wien Klin Wochenschr 2017; 129:634-641. [PMID: 28733842 DOI: 10.1007/s00508-017-1233-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2017] [Accepted: 06/30/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Human dirofilariosis is currently considered to be an emerging zoonosis of Central Europe with climate change and globalization playing a key role in its spreading. Additionally, the occurrence of Dirofilaria spp. is strongly subject to a certain number of microfilaremic dogs and the presence of the mosquito vectors. Both conditions are fulfilled in Slovakia. The first human case of autochthonous dirofilariosis in Slovakia was diagnosed in 2007, 2 years after the infection had been observed in the Slovak dog population. Since then, a total of 12 human cases caused by Dirofilaria repens have been registered at the Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 7 subcutaneous, 4 ocular and 1 pulmonary; however, it is likely that some cases remain undiagnosed, seeing that this infection is still missed by physicians. Of the patients 9 were male and 3 were female and their age varied between 15 and 72 years (mean 49 years). The majority of those affected came from the southern regions of the country, bordering Austria and Hungary, which are considered to be endemic areas for canine dirofilariosis. In this paper all published and unpublished cases are reviewed, with a special emphasis on the rare pulmonary form of D. repens infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Miterpáková
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, 040 01, Košice, Slovakia
| | - Daniela Antolová
- Institute of Parasitology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, Hlinkova 3, 040 01, Košice, Slovakia.
| | - František Ondriska
- Medirex Group, Istrijská 20, 841 07, Bratislava, Slovakia.,Trnava University in Trnava, Hornopotočná 23, 918 43, Trnava, Slovakia
| | - Viliam Gál
- Alpha Medical Pathology, Ružinovská 6, 826 06, Bratislava, Slovakia
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12
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Șuleșco T, von Thien H, Toderaș L, Toderaș I, Lühken R, Tannich E. Circulation of Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis in Moldova. Parasit Vectors 2016; 9:627. [PMID: 27912786 PMCID: PMC5135815 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-016-1916-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2016] [Accepted: 11/25/2016] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Over the last two decades, a significant spread of dirofilariasis has been observed in eastern and central Europe. However, data on the circulation of Dirofilaria spp. in Moldova were absent although direct neighbor states reported high incidence rates of human dirofilariasis. METHODS Daily mean temperature data were used to calculate Dirofilaria spp. development units, which were used to estimate the potential for complete extrinsic development in the mosquitoes (= sum of potential Dirofilaria spp. transmission days). In addition, 4,481 adult female mosquitoes were collected from 25 trapping sites. From 2010 to 2015, sampling was conducted with Centers for Disease Control miniature light traps, indoor resting mosquito collections as well as human landing catches in urban, rural and natural areas. Mosquitoes were analyzed for the presence of D. repens and D. immitis DNA using a duplex real-time PCR assay targeting nucleotide differences within the cytochrome c oxidase subunit 1 (D. repens) and 16S rRNA gene fragment (D. immitis). RESULTS The average of the yearly sum of potential Dirofilaria spp. transmission days between 2010 and 2015 ranged from 90 to 140 days with an increasing gradient from the North to the South of Moldova. Positive mosquito pools for D. repens were found countrywide at 13 of the 25 trapping sites and in 17 of the 22 screened mosquito taxa (26.51% of all 347 tested pools), while D. immitis was detected only at 4 of the trapping sites (Center and South) in 4 different mosquito species (8.65% of all 347 tested pools). Highest infection rates (EIR) per 100 specimens for both Dirofilaria species were found in An. maculipennis (s.l.) (D. repens: EIR = 4.91; D. immitis: EIR = 2.01), whereas the most frequent mosquito taxon Cx. pipiens (s.l.)/torrentium had significantly lower infections rates (D. repens: EIR = 0.88; D. immitis: EIR = 0.47). CONCLUSIONS The temperature conditions in Moldova are suitable for transmission of Dirofilaria spp. within the entire country, which is supported by a wide distribution of Dirofilaria spp.-positive mosquitoes with high infection rates. The low number of reported human cases most likely does not reflect the current epidemiological situation of dirofilariasis in Moldova.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatiana Șuleșco
- Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chisinau, Moldova
| | - Heidrun von Thien
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Lidia Toderaș
- Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chisinau, Moldova
| | - Ion Toderaș
- Institute of Zoology, Academy of Sciences of Moldova, Chisinau, Moldova
| | - Renke Lühken
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Hamburg, Germany.
| | - Egbert Tannich
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Arbovirus and Hemorrhagic Fever Reference and Research, Hamburg, Germany.,German Centre for Infection Research (DZIF), partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
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13
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Fuehrer HP, Auer H, Leschnik M, Silbermayr K, Duscher G, Joachim A. Dirofilaria in Humans, Dogs, and Vectors in Austria (1978-2014)-From Imported Pathogens to the Endemicity of Dirofilaria repens. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2016; 10:e0004547. [PMID: 27196049 PMCID: PMC4873239 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0004547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Dirofilaria repens and D. immitis are filarioid helminths with domestic and wild canids as main hosts and mosquitoes as vectors. Both species are known to cause zoonotic diseases, primarily pulmonary (D. immitis), ocular (D. repens), and subcutaneous (D. repens) dirofilariosis. Both D. immitis and D. repens are known as invasive species, and their distribution seems associated with climate change. Until very recently, both species were known to be nonendemic in Austria. Methodology and Principal Findings Metadata on introduced and possibly autochthonous cases of infection with Dirofilaria sp. in dogs and humans in Austria are analysed, together with analyses of mosquito populations from Austria in ongoing studies. In Austria, most cases of Dirofilaria sp. in humans (30 cases of D. repens—six ocular and 24 subcutaneous) and dogs (approximately 50 cases—both D. immitis and D. repens) were most likely imported. However, occasionally infections with D. repens were discussed to be autochthonous (one human case and seven in dogs). The introduction of D. repens to Austria was confirmed very recently, as the parasite was detected in Burgenland (eastern Austria) for the first time in mosquito vectors during a surveillance program. For D. immitis, this could not be confirmed yet, but data from Germany suggest that the successful establishment of this nematode species in Austria is a credible scenario for the near future. Conclusions The first findings of D. repens in mosquito vectors indicate that D. repens presumably invaded in eastern Austria. Climate analyses from central Europe indicate that D. immitis also has the capacity to establish itself in the lowland regions of Austria, given that both canid and culicid hosts are present.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Institute of Parasitology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
- * E-mail:
| | - Herbert Auer
- Institute of Specific Prophylaxis and Tropical Medicine, Medical University Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Leschnik
- Small Animal Clinic, Department for Companion Animals, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Katja Silbermayr
- Institute of Parasitology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Georg Duscher
- Institute of Parasitology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
| | - Anja Joachim
- Institute of Parasitology, Department for Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Austria
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14
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Matějů J, Chanová M, Modrý D, Mitková B, Hrazdilová K, Žampachová V, Kolářová L. Dirofilaria repens: emergence of autochthonous human infections in the Czech Republic (case reports). BMC Infect Dis 2016; 16:171. [PMID: 27094256 PMCID: PMC4837637 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-1505-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2015] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Human dirofilariasis is a zoonotic infection that continues to spread to previously unaffected areas of Europe. In the South Moravian Region of the Czech Republic (CR), imported as well as autochthonous canine infections were recorded in the last decade, and parasite DNA was detected in mosquitoes of Aedes vexans. In the present paper, human Dirofilaria infections are reported from the country for the first time. Case presentation The samples from five patients with suspected tissue helminthiases were investigated. In particular cases, nematodes were isolated from various tissues including skin of lower leg, soft tissues of finger, subcutaneous tissue of hypogastrium, lymph node and peritoneum. The diagnosis was based on light microscopic morphology and/or DNA analysis of the worms. In addition, ELISA examination of patients’ sera for anti-filaria IgG antibodies was performed. Conclusions In the CR, five cases of human dirofilariasis caused by Dirofilaria repens were recorded during 2010–2014 (species determination for three of them was confirmed besides morphological also by DNA analysis). At least, three of the cases were of autochthonous origin (the patients are Czech citizens residing in South Moravian Region who have never travelled abroad). The findings confirm the natural setting of D. repens in South Moravian Region of the CR. Dirofilariasis should be therefore considered as endemic in this area where it may represent a significant risk factor for public health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Matějů
- Institute of Immunology and Microbiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.,National Reference Laboratory for Tissue Helminthoses, General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Marta Chanová
- Institute of Immunology and Microbiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - David Modrý
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Central European Institute for Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Biology Centre, Institute of Parasitology, Czech Academy of Sciences, České Budějovice, Czech Republic
| | - Barbora Mitková
- Department of Pathology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Central European Institute for Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Kristýna Hrazdilová
- Central European Institute for Technology, University of Veterinary and Pharmaceutical Sciences, Brno, Czech Republic.,Department of Virology, Veterinary Research Institute, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Víta Žampachová
- First Department of Pathological Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, Masaryk University - St. Anne's University Hospital Brno, Brno, Czech Republic
| | - Libuše Kolářová
- Institute of Immunology and Microbiology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University in Prague and General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic. .,National Reference Laboratory for Tissue Helminthoses, General University Hospital in Prague, Prague, Czech Republic.
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15
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Dóczi I, Bereczki L, Gyetvai T, Fejes I, Skribek Á, Szabó Á, Berkes S, Tiszlavicz L, Bartha N, Bende B, Kis E, Kucsera I. Description of five dirofilariasis cases in South Hungary and review epidemiology of this disease for the country. Wien Klin Wochenschr 2015; 127:696-702. [PMID: 26178869 DOI: 10.1007/s00508-015-0825-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2015] [Accepted: 06/03/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dirofilariasis is an emerging zoonosis (supported by climate change) in Central Europe. Human infections are usually caused by Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis with mediation of mosquito vectors. Aims of this publication were to report our dirofilariasis cases, and to summarize Hungarian epidemiological data by reviewing literature. METHODS AND RESULTS We present five (four ophthalomological, one subcutaneous) cases observed within a 2-year period in Southern Hungary. Ages of infected patients were between 31 and 74 years. First case during pregnancy is also reported. There was no travel history in the anamnesis of patients which could explain acquisition of the infection. Moving, intact worms eliminated by surgical interventions were identified on the basis of morphological features as D. repens. Since the first report of human case, 115 further episodes (in addition to ours) were diagnosed in Hungary. Mean age of the patients was 47 years. Reviewing national reports, the ratio of subcutaneous infections was higher than that of the ocular ones (66 and 45, respectively). Evaluation of the territorial distribution of human episodes revealed that most infections occurred in patients living in the Danube-Tisza interfluvial region and eastern part of the country. However, sporadic cases were also found in western counties during 2014. CONCLUSION Most of the Hungarian dirofilariasis cases were autochthonous infections. Occurrence in the western counties may suggest the spreading of this emerging zoonosis to these areas. Comprehensive monitoring and data analysis are desirable, therefore reporting the epidemiologic data in the case of human infections should be made mandatory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilona Dóczi
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, 6 Semmelweis str, 6725, Szeged, Hungary.
| | - László Bereczki
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, 6 Semmelweis str, 6725, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Tamás Gyetvai
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Imre Fejes
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Ákos Skribek
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Áron Szabó
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Szilvia Berkes
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Ophthalmology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - László Tiszlavicz
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pathology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Noémi Bartha
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Clinical Microbiology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, 6 Semmelweis str, 6725, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Balázs Bende
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
| | - Erika Kis
- Faculty of Medicine, Department of Dermatology and Allergology, Albert Szent-Györgyi Clinical Center, University of Szeged, Szeged, Hungary
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16
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Duscher GG, Leschnik M, Fuehrer HP, Joachim A. Wildlife reservoirs for vector-borne canine, feline and zoonotic infections in Austria. Int J Parasitol Parasites Wildl 2015; 4:88-96. [PMID: 25830102 PMCID: PMC4356739 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijppaw.2014.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2014] [Revised: 12/03/2014] [Accepted: 12/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Austria's mammalian wildlife comprises a large variety of species, acting and interacting in different ways as reservoir and intermediate and definitive hosts for different pathogens that can be transmitted to pets and/or humans. Foxes and other wild canids are responsible for maintaining zoonotic agents, e.g. Echinococcus multilocularis, as well as pet-relevant pathogens, e.g. Hepatozoon canis. Together with the canids, and less commonly felids, rodents play a major role as intermediate and paratenic hosts. They carry viruses such as tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV), bacteria including Borrelia spp., protozoa such as Toxoplasma gondii, and helminths such as Toxocara canis. The role of wild ungulates, especially ruminants, as reservoirs for zoonotic disease on the other hand seems to be negligible, although the deer filaroid Onchocerca jakutensis has been described to infect humans. Deer may also harbour certain Anaplasma phagocytophilum strains with so far unclear potential to infect humans. The major role of deer as reservoirs is for ticks, mainly adults, thus maintaining the life cycle of these vectors and their distribution. Wild boar seem to be an exception among the ungulates as, in their interaction with the fox, they can introduce food-borne zoonotic agents such as Trichinella britovi and Alaria alata into the human food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georg G. Duscher
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Leschnik
- Small Animal Clinic, Department for Companion Animals, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hans-Peter Fuehrer
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
| | - Anja Joachim
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, A-1210 Vienna, Austria
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17
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Lebl K, Zittra C, Silbermayr K, Obwaller A, Berer D, Brugger K, Walter M, Pinior B, Fuehrer HP, Rubel F. Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) and their relevance as disease vectors in the city of Vienna, Austria. Parasitol Res 2014; 114:707-13. [PMID: 25468380 PMCID: PMC4303709 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4237-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 11/14/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mosquitoes (Diptera: Culicidae) are important vectors for a wide range of pathogenic organisms. As large parts of the human population in developed countries live in cities, the occurrence of vector-borne diseases in urban areas is of particular interest for epidemiologists and public health authorities. In this study, we investigated the mosquito occurrence in the city of Vienna, Austria, in order to estimate the risk of transmission of mosquito-borne diseases. Mosquitoes were captured using different sampling techniques at 17 sites in the city of Vienna. Species belonging to the Culex pipiens complex (78.8 %) were most abundant, followed by Coquillettidia richiardii (10.2 %), Anopheles plumbeus (5.4 %), Aedes vexans (3.8 %), and Ochlerotatus sticticus (0.7 %). Individuals of the Cx. pipiens complex were found at 80.2 % of the trap sites, while 58.8 % of the trap sites were positive for Cq. richiardii and Ae. vexans. Oc. sticticus was captured at 35.3 % of the sites, and An. plumbeus only at 23.5 % of the trap sites. Cx. pipiens complex is known to be a potent vector and pathogens like West Nile virus (WNV), Usutu virus (USUV), Tahyna virus (TAHV), Sindbis virus (SINV), Plasmodium sp., and Dirofilaria repens can be transmitted by this species. Cq. richiardii is a known vector species for Batai virus (BATV), SINV, TAHV, and WNV, while Ae. vexans can transmit TAHV, USUV, WNV, and Dirofilaria repens. An. plumbeus and Oc. sticticus seem to play only a minor role in the transmission of vector-borne diseases in Vienna. WNV, which is already wide-spread in Europe, is likely to be the highest threat in Vienna as it can be transmitted by several of the most common species, has already been shown to pose a higher risk in cities, and has the possibility to cause severe illness.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Lebl
- Institute for Veterinary Public Health, Department for Farm Animals and Veterinary Public Health, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinärplatz 1, 1210, Vienna, Austria,
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18
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Auer H, Aspöck H. Helminths and helminthoses in Central Europe: diseases caused by nematodes (roundworms). Wien Med Wochenschr 2014; 164:424-34. [DOI: 10.1007/s10354-014-0317-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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19
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Halla U, Ursula H, Korbel R, Rüdiger K, Mutschmann F, Frank M, Rinder M, Monika R. Blood parasites in reptiles imported to Germany. Parasitol Res 2014; 113:4587-99. [PMID: 25324132 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-014-4149-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2014] [Accepted: 09/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Though international trade is increasing, the significance of imported reptiles as carriers of pathogens with relevance to animal and human health is largely unknown. Reptiles imported to Germany were therefore investigated for blood parasites using light microscopy, and the detected parasites were morphologically characterized. Four hundred ten reptiles belonging to 17 species originating from 11 Asian, South American and African countries were included. Parasites were detected in 117 (29%) of individual reptiles and in 12 species. Haemococcidea (Haemogregarina, Hepatozoon, Schellackia) were found in 84% of snakes (Python regius, Corallus caninus), 20% of lizards (Acanthocercus atricollis, Agama agama, Kinyongia fischeri, Gekko gecko) and 50% of turtles (Pelusios castaneus). Infections with Hematozoea (Plasmodium, Sauroplasma) were detected in 14% of lizards (Acanthocercus atricollis, Agama agama, Agama mwanzae, K. fischeri, Furcifer pardalis, Xenagama batillifera, Acanthosaura capra, Physignathus cocincinus), while those with Kinetoplastea (Trypanosoma) were found in 9% of snakes (Python regius, Corallus caninus) and 25 % of lizards (K. fischeri, Acanthosaura capra, G. gecko). Nematoda including filarial larvae parasitized in 10% of lizards (Agama agama, Agama mwanzae, K. fischeri, Fu. pardalis, Physignathus cocincinus). Light microscopy mostly allowed diagnosis of the parasites' genus, while species identification was not possible because of limited morphological characteristics available for parasitic developmental stages. The investigation revealed a high percentage of imported reptiles being carriers of parasites while possible vectors and pathogenicity are largely unknown so far. The spreading of haemoparasites thus represents an incalculable risk for pet reptiles, native herpetofauna and even human beings.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Halla Ursula
- Klinik Für Vögel, Reptilien, Amphibien Und Zierfische, Zentrum Für Klinische Tiermedizin, Tierärztliche Fakultät, Ludwig-Maximilians Universität München, Sonnenstr. 18, 85764, Oberschleißheim, Germany,
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Czajka C, Becker N, Jöst H, Poppert S, Schmidt-Chanasit J, Krüger A, Tannich E. Stable transmission of Dirofilaria repens nematodes, northern Germany. Emerg Infect Dis 2014; 20:328-31. [PMID: 24447653 PMCID: PMC3901495 DOI: 10.3201/eid2002.131003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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21
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Silbermayr K, Eigner B, Joachim A, Duscher GG, Seidel B, Allerberger F, Indra A, Hufnagl P, Fuehrer HP. Autochthonous Dirofilaria repens in Austria. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:226. [PMID: 24885284 PMCID: PMC4026151 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Europe animal and human infections due to Dirofilaria repens are increasing. FINDINGS In a nationwide screening for filarioid parasites in Austria, 7,632 mosquitoes were collected from June till October 2012 and divided into 437 pools according to same trapping date and sight and mosquito species. For the molecular detection, a real-time PCR approach was followed by conventional PCR. D. repens was detected in the villages Moerbisch and Rust, Burgenland in one Anopheles maculipennis group and one Anopheles algeriensis species pool, respectively. CONCLUSIONS The geographical distribution of the two positive pools points to the invasion of D. repens from Eastern neighboring countries. The finding of D. repens in mosquito vectors suggests the occurrence of the causative agent for cutaneous dirofilariosis in Austria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katja Silbermayr
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Veterinaerplatz 1, 1210 Vienna, Austria.
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Tappe D, Plauth M, Bauer T, Muntau B, Dießel L, Tannich E, Herrmann-Trost P. A case of autochthonous human Dirofilaria infection, Germany, March 2014. Euro Surveill 2014. [DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es2014.19.17.20790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
In March 2014, an infection with the nematode Dirofilaria repens was diagnosed in a German citizen in the federal state of Saxony-Anhalt. The patient had developed an itching subcutaneous nodule containing a female worm, which was identified as D. repens by 12S ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) gene sequencing. Autochthonous human D. repens infections have not been described in Germany so far, but this finding is consistent with the recent detection of D. repens in mosquitoes from east Germany.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Tappe
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - M Plauth
- Städtisches Klinikum Dessau, Klinik für Innere Medizin, Dessau-Roßlau, Germany
| | - T Bauer
- Mund-Kiefer-Gesichtschirurgie Halle Dessau, Dessau, Germany
| | - B Muntau
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
| | - L Dießel
- Amedes MVZ für Pathologie und Zytodiagnostik Halle/Saale, Germany
| | - E Tannich
- Bernhard Nocht Institute for Tropical Medicine, Hamburg, Germany
- German Centre for Infection Research, partner site Hamburg-Luebeck-Borstel, Hamburg, Germany
| | - P Herrmann-Trost
- Amedes MVZ für Pathologie und Zytodiagnostik Halle/Saale, Germany
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Kronefeld M, Kampen H, Sassnau R, Werner D. Molecular detection of Dirofilaria immitis, Dirofilaria repens and Setaria tundra in mosquitoes from Germany. Parasit Vectors 2014; 7:30. [PMID: 24433279 PMCID: PMC3898823 DOI: 10.1186/1756-3305-7-30] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 01/06/2014] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background As a result of globalization and climate change, Dirofilaria immitis and Dirofilaria repens, the causative agents of dirofilariosis in Europe, continue to spread from endemic areas in the Mediterranean to northern and northeastern regions of Europe where autochthonous cases of dirofilarial infections have increasingly been observed in dogs and humans. Whilst D. repens was recently reported from mosquitoes in putatively non-endemic areas, D. immitis has never been demonstrated in mosquitoes from Europe outside the Mediterranean. Methods From 2011 to 2013, mosquitoes collected within the framework of a German national mosquito monitoring programme were screened for filarial nematodes using a newly designed filarioid-specific real-time PCR assay. Positive samples were further processed by conventional PCR amplification of the cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene, amplicons were sequenced and sequences blasted against GenBank. Results Approximately 17,000 female mosquitoes were subjected to filarial screening. Out of 955 pools examined, nine tested positive for filariae. Two of the COI sequences indicated D. immitis, one D. repens and four Setaria tundra. Two sequences could not be assigned to a known species due to a lack of similar GenBank entries. Whilst D. immitis and the unknown parasites were detected in Culex pipiens/torrentium, D. repens was found in a single Anopheles daciae and all S. tundra were demonstrated in Aedes vexans. All positive mosquitoes were collected between mid-June and early September. Conclusion The finding of dirofilariae in German mosquitoes implies the possibility of a local natural transmission cycle. While the routes of introduction to Germany and the origin of the filariae cannot be determined retrospectively, potential culicid vectors and reservoir hosts must prospectively be identified and awareness among physicians, veterinarians and public health personnel be created. The health impact of S. tundra on the indigenous cervid fauna needs further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Helge Kampen
- Friedrich-Loeffler-Institute, Federal Research Institute for Animal Health, Greifswald-Insel Riems, Germany.
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Sassnau R, Genchi C. Qualitative risk assessment for the endemisation of Dirofilaria repens in the state of Brandenburg (Germany) based on temperature-dependent vector competence. Parasitol Res 2013; 112:2647-52. [PMID: 23609600 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-013-3431-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2012] [Accepted: 04/09/2013] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Climate change with an increase in average temperature may be responsible for propagation of temperature-dependent vectors and/or vector-associated pathogens in regions that were previously not endemic. The analysis of climate data of Brandenburg state (Germany) had showed that the extrinsic development of Dirofilaria repens, the causative agent of canine subcutaneous dirofilariosis, was possible from the years 2001 to 2012. This finding, associated to the movement of infected dogs and their relocation from endemic European areas to Germany makes possible a rapid endemization of the infection and highlight the risk for human health, being D. repens a frequent cause of zoonotic infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- R Sassnau
- Small Animal Practice, Hasenheide 65, 10967 Berlin, Germany.
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Ritter A, Egger S, Emesz M. [Dirofilariosis: subconjunctival infection with Dirofilaria repens]. Ophthalmologe 2013; 109:788-90. [PMID: 22526007 DOI: 10.1007/s00347-012-2541-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
A 45-year-old female patient from Bosnia complained of recurrent swelling and redness of the upper eyelid and 24 h later the patient consulted the Salzburg eye hospital because of a subconjunctival swelling. The slit lamp investigation showed a living Dirofilaria repens which could be removed by forceps. On the basis of this case the infection pathway, possible increasing incidence and therapy are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Ritter
- Universitätsklinik für Augenheilkunde und Optometrie der PMU Salzburg, Müllner Hauptstrasse 48, Salzburg, Austria.
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Simón F, Siles-Lucas M, Morchón R, González-Miguel J, Mellado I, Carretón E, Montoya-Alonso JA. Human and animal dirofilariasis: the emergence of a zoonotic mosaic. Clin Microbiol Rev 2012; 25:507-44. [PMID: 22763636 PMCID: PMC3416488 DOI: 10.1128/cmr.00012-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 492] [Impact Index Per Article: 41.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dirofilariasis represents a zoonotic mosaic, which includes two main filarial species (Dirofilaria immitis and D. repens) that have adapted to canine, feline, and human hosts with distinct biological and clinical implications. At the same time, both D. immitis and D. repens are themselves hosts to symbiotic bacteria of the genus Wolbachia, the study of which has resulted in a profound shift in the understanding of filarial biology, the mechanisms of the pathologies that they produce in their hosts, and issues related to dirofilariasis treatment. Moreover, because dirofilariasis is a vector-borne transmitted disease, their distribution and infection rates have undergone significant modifications influenced by global climate change. Despite advances in our knowledge of D. immitis and D. repens and the pathologies that they inflict on different hosts, there are still many unknown aspects of dirofilariasis. This review is focused on human and animal dirofilariasis, including the basic morphology, biology, protein composition, and metabolism of Dirofilaria species; the climate and human behavioral factors that influence distribution dynamics; the disease pathology; the host-parasite relationship; the mechanisms involved in parasite survival; the immune response and pathogenesis; and the clinical management of human and animal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fernando Simón
- Laboratory of Parasitology, Faculty of Pharmacy and IBSAL, University of Salamanca, Spain.
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Human Dirofilaria repens Infection in Romania: A Case Report. Case Rep Infect Dis 2012; 2012:472976. [PMID: 22567488 PMCID: PMC3336227 DOI: 10.1155/2012/472976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2011] [Accepted: 10/19/2011] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Human dirofilariasis is a zoonotic infectious disease caused by the filarial nematodes of dogs Dirofilaria repens and Dirofilaria immitis. Depending on the species involved, human infections usually manifest as one cutaneous or visceral larva migrans that forms a painless nodule in the later course of disease. Dirofilariae are endemic in the Mediterranean, particularly in Italy. They are considered as emerging pathogens currently increasing their geographical range. We present one of the few known cases of human dirofilariasis caused by D. repens in Romania. The patient developed unusual and severe clinical manifestations that mimicked pathological conditions like cellulitis or deep venous thrombosis.
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Genchi C, Kramer LH, Rivasi F. Dirofilarial Infections in Europe. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2011; 11:1307-17. [DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2010.0247] [Citation(s) in RCA: 153] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Claudio Genchi
- Department of Animal Pathology, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - Laura H. Kramer
- Department of Animal Health, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Francesco Rivasi
- Institute of Human Pathology, University of Modena, Modena, Italy
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Affiliation(s)
- Barbara C Böckle
- Department of Dermatology, Innsbruck Medical University, Innsbruck, Austria.
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Elimination of Dirofilaria (syn. Nochtiella) repens microfilariae in dogs with monthly treatments of moxidectin 2.5%/imidacloprid 10% (Advocate, Bayer) spot-on. Parasitol Res 2010; 106:1141-9. [PMID: 20165873 DOI: 10.1007/s00436-010-1783-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 01/19/2010] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Elimination of microfilaria in dogs infected with zoonotic Dirofilaria repens would be desirable to reduce further spread. Moxidectin has demonstrated efficacy against microfilariae and safety in dogs infected with Dirofilaria immitis and could be an option for controlling D. repens microfilariae. A field study with 64 dogs previously confirmed positive for D. repens microfilaria was conducted in Hungary, in which a spot-on product (Advocate, Bayer) was tested. Treatments were applied to 44 dogs once a month for 3 months (five dogs) or 6 months (22 dogs), alternatively every 2 weeks for 6 months (17 dogs). Twenty dogs remained untreated. Microfilaria counts were performed once a month and for a further 6 months following the last treatment. Two weeks after the first treatment, 38 of 44 dogs were microfilaria negative. Four weeks after the initial treatment, one dog still showed a low microfilaria count. Following the second treatment, all treated dogs were negative. This status was maintained during the 6-month observation period after the last treatment. These data demonstrate the successful long-lasting elimination of microfilariae. Moreover, it may be supposed that adult D. repens were killed based on the observation that no further microfilariae were seen up to 6 months after the end of the treatment period.
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