Cellular immune response in HCV infection

Allo-priming as a universal anti-viral vaccine: protecting elderly from current COVID-19 and any future unknown viral outbreak

BACKGROUND

We present the rationale for a novel allo-priming approach to serve the elderly as a universal anti-virus vaccine, as well serving to remodel the aging immune system in order to reverse immunosenescence and inflammaging. This approach has the potential to protect the most vulnerable from disease and provide society an incalculable economic benefit. Allo-priming healthy elderly adults is proposed to provide universal protection from progression of any type of viral infection, including protection against progression of the current outbreak of COVID-19 infection, and any future variants of the causative SARS-CoV-2 virus or the next 'Disease X'. Allo-priming is an alternative approach for the COVID-19 pandemic that provides a back-up in case vaccination strategies to elicit neutralizing antibody protection fails or fails to protect the vulnerable elderly population. The allo-priming is performed using activated, intentionally mismatched, ex vivo differentiated and expanded living Th1-like cells (AlloStim^®) derived from healthy donors currently in clinical use as an experimental cancer vaccine. Multiple intradermal injections of AlloStim^® creates a dominate titer of allo-specific Th1/CTL memory cells in circulation, replacing the dominance of exhausted memory cells of the aged immune system. Upon viral encounter, by-stander activation of the allo-specific memory cells causes an immediate release of IFN-ϒ, leading to development of an "anti-viral state", by-stander activation of innate cellular effector cells and activation of cross-reactive allo-specific CTL. In this manner, the non-specific activation of allo-specific Th1/CTL initiates a cascade of spatial and temporal immune events which act to limit the early viral titer. The release of endogenous heat shock proteins (HSP) and DAMP from lysed viral-infected cells, in the context of IFN-ϒ, creates of conditions for in situ vaccination leading to viral-specific Th1/CTL immunity. These viral-specific Th1/CTL provide sterilizing immunity and memory for protection from disease recurrence, while increasing the pool of Th1/CTL in circulation capable of responding to the next viral encounter.

CONCLUSION

Allo-priming has potential to provide universal protection from viral disease and is a strategy to reverse immunosenescence and counter-regulate chronic inflammation (inflammaging). Allo-priming can be used as an adjuvant for anti-viral vaccines and as a counter-measure for unknown biological threats and bio-economic terrorism.

The role of cytokines in hepatocellular carcinoma

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a frequent malignancy worldwide with a high rate of metastasis. The hepatitis B and C viruses are considered major etiological factors associated with the development of HCC, particularly as a result of their induction of chronic inflammation. There is increasing evidence that the inflammatory process is inherently associated with many different cancer types, including HCC. Specifically, this review aims to cover evidence for the potential roles of cytokines, an important component of the immune system, in promoting HCC carcinogenesis and progression. A global summary of cytokine levels, functions, polymorphisms, and therapies with regard to HCC is presented. In particular, the role of proinflammatory Th1 and anti-inflammatory Th2 cytokine imbalances in the microenvironment of HCC patients with metastasis and the possible clinical significance of these findings are addressed. Overall, multiple studies, spanning many decades, have begun to elucidate the important role of cytokines in HCC.

Lack of optimal T-cell reactivity against the hepatitis C virus is associated with the development of fibrosis/cirrhosis during chronic hepatitis

Chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection develops in 85% of exposed individuals and 20% develop cirrhosis. However, the pathogenesis of this process is not well-understood. The objective of this study was to determine whether HCV-reactive T cells play a role in the process of development of cirrhosis during chronic HCV infection. We analyzed 21 human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-A2 patients with chronic HCV infection (9 with histology of inflammation and 12 with histology of fibrosis/cirrhosis). The frequency of CD8(+) T cells reactive to 12 HCV-derived epitopes was determined by an interferon-gamma enzyme-linked immunospot (ELISPOT) assay. The frequency of CD4(+) Th1 and Th2 cells reactive to the HCV core antigen was determined by interferon-gamma and interleukin-5 ELISPOT assays, respectively. Patients with histology of inflammation showed a significantly higher CD8(+) T-cell response to five HCV-derived epitopes (YLLPRRGPRL [core], CINGVCWTV [NS3], LLCPAGHAV [NS3], ILAGYGAGV [NS4B], and GLQDCTMLV [NS5B]) as compared with patients with histology of fibrosis/cirrhosis. Also, patients with histology of inflammation showed a significantly higher CD4(+) Th1 response to the HCV core antigen as compared to patients with histology of fibrosis/cirrhosis. These results indicate that a lack of an optimal T-cell response to HCV is associated with the development of cirrhosis during chronic HCV infection.