Characterizing the need for tracheostomy placement and decannulation after cervical spinal cord injury

The influencing factors for tracheostomy decannulation after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: a retrospective study

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study.

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the outcomes and influencing factors of tracheostomy decannulation (TD) in persons with traumatic cervical spinal cord injury (SCI).

SETTING

China Rehabilitation Research Center (CRRC) in Beijing, China.

METHODS

From January 2017 to December 2021, 365 persons with traumatic cervical SCI were admitted to the China Rehabilitation Research Center. During hospitalization, tracheostomy patients were enrolled and divided into the TD group and non-TD group. Demographic and clinical data, as well as functional assessments, were collected and recorded for all persons. The factors influencing TD were analyzed using both univariate and multivariate logistic regression.

RESULTS

A total of 78 persons with traumatic cervical SCI from CRRC were enrolled in this study. Of these, 48 persons (61.5%) underwent successful decannulation, with a median time of 93.5 days (IQR: 62.0-143.8 days). Multivariate logistic regression revealed that AIS A (P = 0.021, OR: 5.378, 95% CI, 1.287-22.474) and Charlson comorbidity index (CCI) (P = 0.003, OR: 1.836, 95% CI, 1.230-2.740) were significant risk factors of reduced success in TD. PEF in the TD group was 145.44 ± 50.56 L/min. Middle-aged and young persons with traumatic cervical SCI at C3 to C5 neurological level did not satisfy the criterion of PEF (over 160 L/min), but they can still attempt tracheostomy decannulation.

CONCLUSION

AIS A and a high CCI will reduce the success rate of tracheostomy decannulation in persons suffering from traumatic cervical SCI.

Long-term trends and risk factors of tracheostomy and decannulation in patients with cervical spinal cord Injury

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the risk factors of tracheostomy and decannulation after cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI) and their epidemiological changes over the past 8 years in Beijing Bo'ai Hospital, China Rehabilitation Research Center (CRRC), China.

SETTING

Beijing Bo'ai Hospital, CRRC.

METHODS

We reviewed 8 years of patient data (2013.1.1 to 2020.12.31) at CRRC, focusing on those hospitalized and diagnosed with CSCI. We analyzed changes in demographic and clinical data's trends. Logistic regression analysis was used to determine factors impacting tracheostomy and decannulation.

RESULTS

Finally, 1641 CSCI patients met the inclusion criteria. Over the past 8 years, the proportion of tracheostomized patients with CSCI was 16.3%, and the proportion of successfully decannulated of tracheostomized patients with TCSCI was 77.9%. We found that Traumatic (OR = 1.8, 95% CI = 1.06, 3.22; p = 0.046), Motor level of injury (C5-C8) (OR = 0.32, 95% CI = -1.91,-0.34; p = 0.005), AIS = A/B/C (OR = 22.7/11.1/4.2, 95% CI = 12.16,42.26/5.74,21.56/2.23,7.89; p < 0.001/p < 0.001/p < 0.001), age > 56 (OR = 1.6, 95% CI = 1.04, 2.32; p = 0.031) were the risk factors for tracheostomy. By analyzing the risk factors of decannulation failure in tracheostomized patients with TCSCI through multivariable logistic regression, statistically significant differences were found in age > 45 (OR = 4.1, 95% CI = 1.44, 11.81; p = 0.008), complete injury (OR = 2.7, 95% CI = 1.26, 5.95; p = 0.011), facet dislocation (OR = 2.8, 95% CI = 1.13,7.07; p = 0.027).

CONCLUSIONS

Recent years have witnessed shifts in the epidemiological characteristics of CSCI. Identifying the factors influencing tracheostomy and decannulation in CSCI can aid in improving patient prognosis.

One-stage tracheostomy during surgery reduced early pulmonary infection and mechanical ventilation length in complete CSCI patients

Objective

Complete cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI) is a devastating injury that usually requires surgical treatment. Tracheostomy is an important supportive therapy for these patients. To evaluate the effectiveness of early one-stage tracheostomy during surgery compared with necessary tracheostomy after surgery, and to identify clinical factors for one-stage tracheostomy during surgery in complete cervical spinal cord injury.

Design

Data from 41 patients with complete CSCI treated with surgery were retrospectively analyzed.

Participants and interventions

Ten patients (24.4%) underwent one-stage tracheostomy during surgery, thirteen (31.7%) underwent tracheostomy when necessary after surgery, and eighteen (43.9%) did not have a tracheostomy.

Main results

One-stage tracheostomy during surgery significantly reduced the development of pneumonia at 7 days after tracheostomy (p = 0.025), increased the PaO2 (p &lt; 0.05), and decreased the length of mechanical ventilation (p = 0.005), length of stay (LOS) in the intensive care unit (ICU) (p = 0.002), hospital LOS (p = 0.01) and hospitalization expenses compared with necessary tracheostomy after surgery (p = 0.037). A high neurological level of injury (NLI) (NLI C5 and above), a high PaCO2 in the blood gas analysis before tracheostomy, severe breathing difficulty, and excessive pulmonary secretions were the statistically significant factors for one-stage tracheostomy during surgery in the complete CSCI patients, but no independent clinical factor was found.

Conclusions

In conclusion, one-stage tracheostomy during surgery reduced the number of early pulmonary infections and the length of mechanical ventilation, ICU LOS, hospital LOS and hospitalization expenses, and one-stage tracheostomy should be considered when managing complete CSCI patients by surgical treatment.

Respiratory Complications and Weaning Considerations for Patients with Spinal Cord Injuries: A Narrative Review

Respiratory complications following traumatic spinal cord injury are common and are associated with high morbidity and mortality. The inability to cough and clear secretions coupled with weakened respiratory and abdominal muscles commonly leads to respiratory failure, pulmonary edema, and pneumonia. Higher level and severity of the spinal cord injury, history of underlying lung pathology, history of smoking, and poor baseline health status are potential predictors for patients that will experience respiratory complications. For patients who may require prolonged intubation, early tracheostomy has been shown to lead to improved outcomes. Prediction models to aid clinicians with the decision and timing of tracheostomy have been shown to be successful but require larger validation studies in the future. Mechanical ventilation weaning strategies also require further investigation but should focus on a combination of optimizing ventilator setting, pulmonary toilet techniques, psychosocial well-being, and an aggressive bowel regimen.

Tracheostomy in traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: Early versus late tracheostomy

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to characterize the relationship between predictors and the time of tracheostomy after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury (TCSCI).

METHODS

Five hundred twenty-six patients with TCSCI treated between January,2012 and December, 2021 were retrospectively reviewed. Patients were subdivided into two groups: early tracheostomy (≤7 days from initiation of endotracheal intubation) and late tracheostomy. Comparisons between early tracheostomy and late tracheostomy were statistically analyzed. Logistic regression analysis was applied to identify independent predictors of tracheostomy and calculate probability for different grades of combining predictors to predict tracheostomy. Spearman's correlation coefficient was used to evaluate the association between the grade of combining predictors and the time to tracheostomy.

RESULTS

Among 526 eligible patients, 63(12.0%) had a tracheostomy performed. Compared with late tracheostomy group, patients in early tracheostomy group had higher ISS, more severe neurological status while fewer In-hospital LOS days and ICU LOS days. By Logistic regression analysis, severe American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS A), the neurological level of injury (NLI>C5), higher Injury Severity Score (ISS>16) and advanced age (over 50 years old) were identified as independent predictors for tracheostomy. Depending on the likelihood of tracheostomy, the combining predictors were graded into five categories. As the value of probability was higher than 50%, Grade I-III made optimistic predictions about tracheostomy. According to Spearman's correlation analysis, early tracheostomy had a strong association with Grade I, while late tracheostomy was closely correlated with Grade III.

CONCLUSIONS

Factors related to the decision of tracheostomy were ASIA impairment scale, neurological level of injury, injury severity score and age. The grades of combining predictors could support indication for predicting the time of tracheostomy.

A Nomogram Model for Prediction of Tracheostomy in Patients With Traumatic Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

OBJECTIVE

To develop a nomogram for the prediction of tracheostomy in patients with traumatic cervical spinal cord injury (TCSCI).

METHODS

A total of 689 TCSCI patients were included in our study. First, the variable selection was performed using between-group comparisons and LASSO regression analysis. Second, a multivariate logistic regression analysis (MLRA) with a step-by-step method was performed. A nomogram model was developed based on the MLRA. Finally, the model was validated on the training set and validation set.

RESULTS

The nomogram prediction model incorporated 5 predictors, including smoking history, dislocation, thoracic injury, American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) grade, and neurological level of injury (NLI). The area under curve in the training group and in the validation group were 0.883 and 0.909, respectively. The Hosmer-Lemeshow test result was p = 0.153. From the decision curve analysis curve, the model performed well and was feasible to make beneficial clinical decisions.

CONCLUSION

The nomogram combining dislocation, thoracic injury, ASIA grade A, NLI, and smoking history was validated as a reliable model for the prediction of tracheostomy.

Successful decannulation of patients with traumatic spinal cord injury: A scoping review

Context: Patients with spinal cord injury (SCI) often require tracheostomy as an immediate life-saving measure. Successful decannulation, or removal of the tracheostomy, improves patient quality of life, function, and physical appearance and is considered an important rehabilitative milestone for SCI patients.Objective: We sought to synthesize the existing published literature on SCI patients undergoing decannulation.Methods: Ovid MEDLINE, Embase, Web of Science, CINAHL, and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials were systematically searched through July 2, 2019 using appropriate keywords and MeSH terms pertaining to tracheostomy and SCI. Searches were human-subject only without language restrictions. Published literature discussing the outcomes of SCI patients who underwent decannulation were screened using inclusion/exclusion criteria determined a priori and reviewed.Results: Twenty-six publications were eligible for review and synthesis out of 1,493 unique articles. Over half of the studies were retrospective case series or reports. The research was nearly all published within the fields of physical medicine and rehabilitation, neurology, and pulmonary/critical care. Three themes emerged from review: (1) interdisciplinary or multidisciplinary tracheostomy team management to optimize decannulation processes, (2) non-invasive intermittent positive-pressure ventilatory support instead of tracheostomy-based ventilator support, and (3) wide variation in the reporting of post-decannulation clinical outcomes.Conclusion: Published research lacks a consistent taxonomy for reporting post-decannulation outcomes in SCI patients. Non-invasive ventilation research could benefit many SCI patients but has been studied in depth primarily by a single authorship group. Further investigation into the socioeconomic and fiscal impact on tracheostomies on SCI patients is warranted.

Relationship between smoking and postoperative complications of cervical spine surgery: a systematic review and meta-analysis

To determine whether smoking has adverse effects on postoperative complications following spine cervical surgery (PROSPERO 2021: CRD42021269648). We searched PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, and Web of Science through 13 July 2021 for cohort and case–control studies that investigated the effect of smoking on postoperative complications after cervical spine surgery. Two researchers independently screened the studies and extracted data according to the selection criteria. The meta-analysis included 43 studies, including 27 case–control studies and 16 cohort studies, with 10,020 patients. Pooled estimates showed that smoking was associated with overall postoperative complications (effect estimate [ES] = 1.99, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.62–2.44, p < 0.0001), respiratory complications (ES = 2.70, 95% CI: 1.62–4.49, p < 0.0001), reoperation (ES = 2.06, 95% CI: 1.50–2.81, p < 0.0001), dysphagia (ES = 1.49, 95% CI: 1.06–2.10, p = 0.022), wound infection (ES = 3.21, 95% CI: 1.62–6.36, p = 0.001), and axial neck pain (ES = 1.98, 95% CI: 1.25–3.12, p = 0.003). There were no significant differences between the smoking and nonsmoking groups in terms of fusion (ES = 0.97, 95% CI: 0.94–1.00, p = 0.0097), operation time (weighted mean difference [WMD] = 0.08, 95% CI: −5.54 to 5.71, p = 0.977), estimated blood loss (WMD = −5.31, 95% CI: −148.83 to 139.22, p = 0.943), length of hospital stay (WMD = 1.01, 95% CI: −2.17 to 4.20, p = 0.534), Visual Analog Scale-neck pain score (WMD = −0.19, 95% CI: −1.19 to 0.81, p = 0.707), Visual Analog Scale-arm pain score (WMD = −0.50, 95% CI: −1.53 to 0.53, p = 0.343), Neck Disability Index score (WMD = 11.46, 95% CI: −3.83 to 26.76, p = 0.142), or Japanese Orthopedic Association Scores (WMD = −1.75, 95% CI: −5.27 to 1.78, p = 0.332). Compared with nonsmokers, smokers seem to be more significantly associated with overall complications, respiratory complications, reoperation, longer hospital stay, dysphagia, wound infection and axial neck pain after cervical spine surgery. It is essential to provide timely smoking cessation advice and explanation to patients before elective cervical spine surgery.

Classification and regression tree (CART) model to assist clinical prediction for tracheostomy in patients with traumatic cervical spinal cord injury: a 7-year study of 340 patients

OBJECTIVE

To develop a classification and regression tree (CART) model to predict the need of tracheostomy in patients with traumatic cervical spinal cord injury (TCSCI) and to quantify scores of risk factors to make individualized clinical assessments.

METHODS

The clinical characteristics of patients with TCSCI admitted to our hospital from January 2014 to December 2020 were retrospectively analyzed. The demographic characteristics (gender, age, smoking history), mechanism of injury, injury characteristics (ASIA impairment grades, neurological level of impairment, injury severity score), preexisting lung disease and preexisting medical conditions were statistically analyzed. The risk factors of tracheostomy were analyzed by univariate logistic regression analysis (ULRA) and multiple logistic regression analysis (MLRA). The CART model was established to predict tracheostomy.

RESULTS

Three hundred and forty patients with TCSCI met the inclusion criteria, in which 41 patients underwent the tracheostomy. ULRA and MLRA showed that age > 50, ISS > 16, NLI > C5 and AIS A were significantly associated with tracheostomy. The CART model showed that AIS A and NLI > C5 were at the first and second decision node, which had a significant influence on the decision of tracheostomy. The final scores for tracheostomy from CART algorithm, composed of age, ISS, NLI and AIS A with a sensitivity of 0.78 and a specificity of 0.96, could also predict tracheostomy.

CONCLUSION

The establishment of CART model provided a certain clinical guidance for the prediction of tracheostomy in TCSCI. Quantifications of risk factors enable accurate prediction of individual patient risk of need for tracheostomy.

Diaphragm Pacing in Spinal Cord Injury Can Significantly Decrease Mechanical Ventilation in Multicenter Prospective Evaluation

BACKGROUND

Cervical spinal cord injury (SCI) can lead to dependence on mechanical ventilation (MV) with significant morbidity and mortality. The diaphragm pacing system (DPS) was developed as an alternative to MV.

METHODS

We conducted a prospective single arm study of DPS in MV dependent patients with high SCI and intact phrenic nerves. Following device acclimation, pacing effectiveness to provide ventilation was evaluated. The primary endpoint was the number who could use DPS to breathe for four continuous hours without MV. Secondary endpoints included the number of patients that could use DPS 24 hours/day free of MV and the ability of DPS to maintain clinically acceptable tidal volume (Vt). In addition, we conducted a meta-analysis that included the prospective study along with data from four recently published studies to evaluate DPS hourly use.

RESULTS

Fifty-three patients were implanted in the prospective study. Most were male (77.4%) with a median time from injury to treatment of 28.3 (IQR 12.1, 83.3) months. Four- and 24-hour use occurred in 96.2% (95%CI - 87.0%, 99.5%) and 58.5% (95% CI - 44.1%, 74.9%), respectively. Four and 24-hour results in the meta-analysis cohort (n=196) exhibited similar results 92.2% (95% CI - 82.6%,96.7%) and 52.7% (95% CI - 36.2%,68.6%) using DPS for four and 24 hours, respectively. DPS use significantly exceeded the calculated basal tidal volume requirements by a mean of 48.4% (95% CI - 37.0, 59.9%; p<0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that in most ventilator-dependent patients, diaphragm pacing can effectively supplement or completely replace the need for MV and support basal metabolic requirements.

Tracheostomy Following Anterior Cervical Discectomy and Fusion With Plating in Trauma Patients: Is It Safe?

Objective

This study aimed to evaluate the safety and necessity of tracheostomy after anterior cervical discectomy and fusion (ACDF) with plating, despite the close proximity of the two surgical skin incisions.

Methods

Sixty-three patients with traumatic cervical fractures or spinal cord injury (SCI) who underwent single-level ACDF and plating between January 2014 and June 2019 were included in this study. The patients included 45 men and 18 women, with a mean age of 48.5 years. A retrospective analysis of the patients’ demographic data, level of injury, radiological findings, and neurological status was performed based on the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA), open tracheostomy, and decannulation rate. Additionally, risk factors necessitating tracheostomy were statistically analyzed.

Results

Eighteen patients (28.5%) required subsequent open tracheostomy. Among them, 11 patients were successfully decannulated, four patients could not be decannulated during the follow-up period, and three patients died of unrelated complications. The median interval from ACDF with plating to open tracheostomy was 9.6 days (range, 5–23 days). On the basis of neurological status, ASIA A and B patients (p<0.001), high signal intensity on T2-weighted-magnetic resonance (MR) images (p=0.001), and major cervical fracture and dislocation were significant risk factors for tracheostomy (p=0.02). No patient showed evidence of significant soft tissue, bony infection, or nonunion during the follow-up period.

Conclusion

Independent tracheostomy did not increase the risk of infection or nonunion despite the close proximity of the two surgical skin incisions.

Safety of early tracheostomy in trauma patients after anterior cervical fusion

BACKGROUND

Cervical spine injuries (CSIs) can have major effects on the respiratory system and carry a high incidence of pulmonary complications. Respiratory failure can be due to spinal cord injuries, concomitant facial fractures or chest injury, airway obstruction, or cognitive impairments. Early tracheostomy (ET) is often indicated in patients with CSI. However, in patients with anterior cervical fusion (ACF), concerns about cross-contamination often delay tracheostomy placement. This study aimed to demonstrate the safety of ET within 4 days of ACF.

METHODS

Retrospective chart review was performed for all trauma patients admitted to our institution between 2001 and 2015 with diagnosis of CSI who required both ACF and tracheostomy, with or without posterior cervical fusion, during the same hospitalization. Thirty-nine study patients with ET (within 4 days of ACF) were compared with 59 control patients with late tracheostomy (5-21 days after ACF). Univariate and logistic regression analyses were performed to compare risk of wound infection, length of intensive care unit and hospital stay, and mortality between both groups during initial hospitalization.

RESULTS

There was no difference in age, sex, preexisting pulmonary or cardiac conditions, Glasgow Coma Scale score, Injury Severity Score, Chest Abbreviated Injury Scale score, American Spinal Injury Association score, cervical spinal cord injury levels, and tracheostomy technique between both groups. There was no statistically significant difference in surgical site infection between both groups. There were no cases of cervical fusion wound infection in the ET group (0%), but there were five cases (8.47%) in the late tracheostomy group (p = 0.15). Four involved the posterior cervical fusion wound, and one involved the ACF wound. There was no statistically significant difference in intensive care unit stay (p = 0.09), hospital stay (p = 0.09), or mortality (p = 0.06) between groups.

CONCLUSION

Early tracheostomy within 4 days of ACF is safe without increased risk of infection compared with late tracheostomy.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Evidence, level III.

Analysis of the risk factors for tracheostomy and decannulation after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury in an aging population

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective study.

OBJECTIVES

To investigate the risk factors associated with tracheostomy after traumatic cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI) and to identify factors associated with decannulation in an aging population.

SETTING

Advanced critical care and emergency center in Yokohama, Japan.

METHODS

Sixty-five patients over 60 years with traumatic CSCI treated between January 2010 and June 2017 were enrolled. The parameters analyzed were age, sex, American Spinal Injury Association impairment scale score (AIS) at admission and one year after injury, neurological level of injury (NLI), injury mechanism, Charlson's comorbidity index (CCI), smoking history, radiological findings, intubation at arrival, treatment choice, length of intensive care unit (ICU) stay, tracheostomy rate, improvement of AIS, decannulation rate, and mortality after one year.

RESULTS

The study included 48 men (74%; mean age 72.8 ± 8.3 years). Twenty-two (34%), 10 (15%), 24 (37%), and 9 (14%) patients were classified as AIS A, B, C, and D, respectively. The tracheostomy group showed significantly more severe degree of paralysis, more patients with major fractures or dislocations, more operative treatment, longer ICU stay, poorer improvement in AIS score after one year and higher rate of intubation at arrival. AIS A at injury was the most significant risk factor for tracheostomy. The non-decannulation group had a significantly higher mortality. The risk factor for failure of decannulation was CCI.

CONCLUSIONS

Risk factors for tracheostomy after traumatic CSCI were AIS A, operative treatment, major fracture/dislocation, and intubation at arrival. The only factor for failure of decannulation was CCI.

Critérios para decanulação da traqueostomia: revisão de literatura

RESUMO Objetivo Realizar um levantamento bibliográfico a respeito da decanulação da traqueostomia para verificar os fatores e protocolos utilizados em estudos internacionais. Estratégia de pesquisa Estudo de revisão de literatura utilizando a base de dados PubMed com os descritores em língua inglesa “Tracheostomy”, “Weaning”, “Decannulation”, “Removal tube”, “Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences”, “Intensive Care Units”, “Dysphagia”, “Swallowing”, “Deglutition” e “Deglutition Disorders”. Critérios de seleção Estudos publicados nos últimos cinco anos (2012 a 2017), com população acima de 18 anos de idade; pesquisas realizadas somente com seres humanos; artigos publicados em língua inglesa; artigos com acesso completo irrestrito; pesquisas relacionadas aos objetivos do estudo. Análise dos dados foram analisados quanto aos seguintes itens: caracterização da amostra; profissionais envolvidos no processo da decanulação; etapas do processo de decanulação; tempo total em dias de uso da traqueostomia; tempo total em dias para concluir processo de decanulação; fatores de insucesso para conclusão do processo de decanulação. Resultados A maior parte da população estudada foi do gênero masculino e com alterações neurológicas. Dos profissionais envolvidos no processo de decanulação, participaram em ordem decrescente médicos, fonoaudiólogos, fisioterapeutas e enfermeiros. As etapas da decanulação mais citadas foram: avaliação da deglutição; treino de oclusão; avaliação da permeabilidade de passagem do ar; habilidade de manipulação de secreção e troca de cânula; desinsuflação do cuff e treino de tosse; uso de válvula de fala. Além disso, obtiveram-se dados a respeito do tempo total de traqueostomia e de decanulação. Conclusão A presença do fonoaudiólogo é extremamente importante no processo de decanulação, visto que a avaliação da deglutição foi a etapa mais citada nos estudos, sendo esse trabalho realizado em conjunto com médicos e fisioterapeutas.

A Meta-Analysis of the Influencing Factors for Tracheostomy after Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

Background

Traumatic cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI) is a common disease that has high complication, disability, and mortality rates and a poor prognosis. Tracheostomy is an important supportive therapy for patients with CSCI. However, a consensus on the predictive factors for tracheostomy after CSCI has not been reached.

Objective

This meta-analysis study assessed the influencing factors for tracheostomy after CSCI.

Methods

We searched for relevant studies on the influencing factors for tracheostomy after CSCI. The extracted data were analyzed using RevMan 5.3 software. We calculated the odds ratio (OR) or mean difference (MD) and 95% confidence intervals (CIs).

Results

Sixteen eligible studies containing 9697 patients with CSCI were selected. The pooled OR (MD) and 95% CI of the influencing factors were as follows: age (mean ± SD): -0.98 (-4.00 to 2.03), advanced age: 1.93 (0.80 to 4.63), sex (male): 1.29 (1.12 to 1.49), American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale (AIS) A grade: 7.79 (5.28 to 11.50), AIS B grade: 1.15 (1.13 to 2.02), AIS C grade: 0.28 (0.20 to 0.41), AIS D grade: 0.04 (0.02 to 0.09), neurological level of injury (upper CSCI): 2.36 (1.51 to 3.68), injury severity score (ISS): 8.97 (8.11 to 9.82), Glasgow Coma Scale (GCS) score ≤8: 6.03 (2.19 to 16.61), thoracic injury: 1.78 (1.55 to 2.04), brain injury: 0.96 (0.55 to 1.69), respiratory complications: 5.97 (4.03 to 8.86), smoking history: 1.45 (0.99 to 2.13), traffic accident injury: 1.27 (0.92 to 1.74), and fall injury: 0.72 (0.52 to 1.01).

Conclusions

The current evidence shows that male sex, AIS A grade, AIS B grade, neurological level of injury (upper CSCI), high ISS, GCS≤8, thoracic injury, and respiratory complications are risk factors for tracheostomy after CSCI, and AIS C grade and AIS D grade are protective factors. This study will allow us to use these factors for tracheostomy decisions and ultimately optimize airway management in patients with CSCI.

A Study of Risk Factors for Tracheostomy in Patients With a Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

STUDY DESIGN

A retrospective, consecutive case series.

OBJECTIVE

To determine the risk factors for a tracheostomy in patients with a cervical spinal cord injury.

SUMMARY AND BACKGROUND DATE

Respiratory status cannot be stabilized in patients with a cervical spinal cord injury (CSCI) for various reasons, so a number of these patients require long-term respiratory care and a tracheostomy. Various studies have described risk factors for a tracheostomy, but none have indicated a relationship between imaging assessment and the need for a tracheostomy. The current study used imaging assessment and other approaches to assess and examine the risk factors for a tracheostomy in patients with a CSCI.

METHODS

Subjects were 199 patients who were treated at the Spinal Injuries Center within 72 hours of a CSCI over 8-year period. Risk factors for a tracheostomy were retrospectively studied. Patients were assessed in terms of 10 items: age, sex, the presence of a vertebral fracture or dislocation, ASIA Impairment Scale, the neurological level of injury (NLI), PaO2, PaCO2, the level of injury on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), the presence of hematoma-like changes (a hypointense core surrounded by a hyperintense rim in T2-weighted images) on MRI, and the Injury Severity Score.Items were analyzed multivariate logistic regression, and P < 0.05 was considered to indicate a significant difference.

RESULTS

Twenty-three of the 199 patients required a tracheostomy, accounting for 11.6% of patients with a CSCI. Univariate analyses of the risk factors for tracheostomy revealed significant differences for six items: age, Injury Severity Score, presence of fracture or dislocation, ASIA Impairment Scale A, NLI C4 or above, and MRI scans revealing hematoma-like changes. Multivariate logistic regression analyses revealed significant differences in terms of two items: NLI C4 or above and MRI scans revealing hematoma-like changes. Thirty patients had both an NLI C4 or above and MRI scans revealing hematoma-like changes. Of these, 17 (56.7%) required a tracheostomy.

CONCLUSION

Patients with an NLI C4 or above and MRI scans revealing hematoma-like changes were likely to require a tracheostomy. An early tracheostomy should be considered for patients with both of these characteristics.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3.

American Spinal Injury Association Impairment Scale Predicts the Need for Tracheostomy After Cervical Spinal Cord Injury

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective review.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to evaluate the ability of the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) Impairment Scale and neurological level of injury to predict the need for mechanical ventilation as well as tracheostomy.

SUMMARY OF BACKGROUND DATA

High-level cervical spinal cord injuries, high Injury Severity Score, and low Glasgow Coma Scale have been shown to predict tracheostomy.

METHODS

A total of 383 patients with fractures, dislocations, or ligamentous injury of the cervical spine were included in the study. Charts were reviewed to determine demographics, Injury Severity Score, Glasgow Coma Scale, presence and severity of chest injuries, length of hospital stay, intensive care unit stay, mechanical ventilation time, and mortality.

RESULTS

Fifty-nine patients (15.4%) underwent tracheostomy. An ASIA Impairment Scale of A had a specificity of 98.8% and sensitivity of 32.2% for predicting the need for tracheostomy. This yielded a 1.2% false-positive rate. The ASIA Impairment Scale remained the most significant predictor after regression for Injury Severity Score, Glasgow Coma Scale, and Chest Abbreviated Injury Scale. Neurological level of injury was not a significant predictor of tracheostomy.

CONCLUSION

An ASIA Impairment Scale of A at any level of injury is a specific predictor of the need for tracheostomy with a low false-positive rate. Given the relatively low risk of early tracheostomy and the potential benefits, an ASIA Impairment Scale of A would be a sensible early criterion to determine the need for tracheostomy.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

3.

Development and validation of a risk prediction model for tracheostomy in acute traumatic cervical spinal cord injury patients

PURPOSE

Tracheostomy may become indispensable for patients with acute traumatic cervical spinal cord injuries. However, the early prediction of a tracheostomy is often difficult. Previous prediction models using the pulmonary function test (PFT) have limitations because some severely injured patients could not provide acceptable PFT results. We aim to develop an alternative model for predicting tracheostomy using accessible data obtained from the bedside.

METHOD

Clinical, neurological and radiological data from 345 consecutive patients with acute tetraplegia were retrospectively reviewed. We applied multiple logistic regression analysis (MLRA) and classification and regression tree (CART) analysis to develop the prediction model for tracheostomy. By train-test cross-validation, we used the sensitivity, specificity, area under the receiver operating characteristics curve (AUC) and correction rate to evaluate the performance of these models.

RESULTS

According to the American Spinal Injury Association (ASIA) standards, an admission ASIA motor score (AAMS) ≤ 22, ASIA grade A and presence of respiratory complications were identified as independent predictors of tracheostomy by both models. The model derived by CART suggested that the highest signal change (HSC) in the spinal cord on magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) also affected a patient's requirement for a tracheostomy, while MLRA demonstrated that tracheostomy was also influenced by the presence of an ASIA grade B injury. The CART model had a sensitivity of 73.7%, specificity of 89.7%, AUC of 0.909 and overall correction rate of 87.3%. The sensitivity, specificity, AUC and correction rate of the MLRA model were 81.8, 86.4, 0.889 and 85.7%, respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

We suggest using the CART model in clinical applications. Patients with AAMS ≤ 1 exhibit an increased likelihood of requiring a tracheostomy. For patients with an AAMS in the range of 2-22, surgeons should consider giving these patients a tracheostomy once respiratory complications occur. Surgeons should be cautious to give a tracheostomy to patients with an AAMS ≥ 23, if the patient experiences an incomplete spinal cord injury and the HSC in the spinal cord is at C3 level or lower based on MRI. For other patients, close observation is necessary; generally, patients with complete SCI might require a tracheostomy more frequently.

Complete cervical spinal cord injury above C6 predicts the need for tracheostomy

BACKGROUND

Failed extubation and delayed tracheostomy contribute to poor outcomes in patients with a traumatic spinal cord injury (SCI). We determined if the level and completeness of SCI predict the need for tracheostomy.

METHODS

Data from 256 patients with SCI between C1 and T3 with or without tracheostomy were retrospectively analyzed. Logistic regression identified predictors for tracheostomy. Data are presented as raw percentage or odds ratio (OR) with 95% confidence interval. P < .05 indicates significance.

RESULTS

Complete spinal cord injuries were common in patients requiring tracheostomy (55% vs 18%, P < .05), and predicted the need for tracheostomy (OR: 6.4 (3.1 to 13.5), P < .05). An injury above C6 predicted the need for tracheostomy in patients with complete injury (OR: 3.7 (1 to 11.9), P < .05), but not incomplete injury (OR: .7 (.3 to 1.9); P = .53).

CONCLUSION

Tracheostomy is unlikely in patients with incomplete SCI, regardless of the level of injury. Patients with complete SCI above C6 are likely to require tracheostomy.

Respiratory management in the patient with spinal cord injury

Spinal cord injuries (SCIs) often lead to impairment of the respiratory system and, consequently, restrictive respiratory changes. Paresis or paralysis of the respiratory muscles can lead to respiratory insufficiency, which is dependent on the level and completeness of the injury. Respiratory complications include hypoventilation, a reduction in surfactant production, mucus plugging, atelectasis, and pneumonia. Vital capacity (VC) is an indicator of overall pulmonary function; patients with severely impaired VC may require assisted ventilation. It is best to proceed with intubation under controlled circumstances rather than waiting until the condition becomes an emergency. Mechanical ventilation can adversely affect the structure and function of the diaphragm. Early tracheostomy following short orotracheal intubation is probably beneficial in selected patients. Weaning should start as soon as possible, and the best modality is progressive ventilator-free breathing (PVFB). Appropriate candidates can sometimes be freed from mechanical ventilation by electrical stimulation. Respiratory muscle training regimens may improve patients' inspiratory function following a SCI.