Rapid and sensitive fluorescence and smartphone dual-mode detection of dopamine based on nitrogen-boron co-doped carbon quantum dots

A fluorescent nanocomposite probe of quantum dots and zinc oxide embedded in polymer for smartphone-assisted on-site determination of diflunisal

A fluorescent sensor based on nitrogen-doped graphene quantum dots (N-GQDs) was developed for the smartphone-assisted colorimetric determination of diflunisal. The fluorescence source was embedded with zinc oxide (ZnO) in a molecularly imprinted polymer (ZnO@N-GQDs@MIP). The quantitative analysis was based on the fluorescence quenching caused by electron transfer from the nanoprobe to diflunisal. The sensor demonstrated linearity in the range of 0.10-50.0 μg L-1 with a limit of detection of 0.03 μg L-1. Smartphone-assisted on-site determination produced linearity in the range of 1.0-50.0 µg/L with a limit of detection of 0.30 μg L-1. The developed sensor was applied to determine diflunisal in milk, egg and yogurt samples. Recoveries ranging from 94.8 to 103.7 % were achieved with a RSD below 2.0 % measured by fluorescence spectroscopy, and from 94.9 to 106.9 % with a RSD of <6 % smatphone-assisted measurement. Comparison of the detection outcomes of both methods with those of high-performance liquid chromatography revealed consistent results, demonstrating the accuracy of the developed method, which was also sensitive, selective, and fast. Notably, the portable and easy-to-read smartphone-assisted method is suitable for on-site application.

Polydiacetylene Liposome-Based Dual-Output Optical Sensor for ppb Level Detection of Dopamine in Solution and Solid Phases

Dopamine (DA), a neurotransmitter, plays a crucial role in regulating motor functions and emotions and can serve as a marker for several diseases. In this study, we report a highly sensitive polydiacetylenes (PDA)-based dual-output sensor for dopamine detection in both solution and solid phases that was developed by modifying PDA liposomes with boronic acid groups at the termini. This sensor exploits the high affinity between the catechol residue of dopamine and the -B(OH)2 group of the PDA-based probe (PDA-PhBA) to form boronate ester bonds, causing a stress-induced blue-to-red color change along with a steady increase in fluorescence response at λmax 622 nm. The PDA-PhBA-based sensor displays high sensitivity toward dopamine with low limit of detection of 6.2 ppb in colorimetric analysis and 0.6 ppb in fluorimetric measurements, demonstrating its dual optical output ability. The sensor works well for adrenaline, another catecholamine, with similar efficacy. Its practical applicability was validated by the successful recovery of trace level dopamine in blood serum and real water samples. Additionally, immobilizing PDA-PhBA liposomes in sodium alginate produced PDA beads for the solid-phase detection of dopamine with an limit of detection (LOD) of 59 nM (9.0 ppb) in colorimetric detection using a smartphone for capturing images and ImageJ software for analysis.

Biosensors for psychiatric biomarkers in mental health monitoring

Psychiatric disorders are associated with serve disturbances in cognition, emotional control, and/or behavior regulation, yet few routine clinical tools are available for the real-time evaluation and early-stage diagnosis of mental health. Abnormal levels of relevant biomarkers may imply biological, neurological, and developmental dysfunctions of psychiatric patients. Exploring biosensors that can provide rapid, in-situ, and real-time monitoring of psychiatric biomarkers is therefore vital for prevention, diagnosis, treatment, and prognosis of mental disorders. Recently, psychiatric biosensors with high sensitivity, selectivity, and reproducibility have been widely developed, which are mainly based on electrochemical and optical sensing technologies. This review presented psychiatric disorders with high morbidity, disability, and mortality, followed by describing pathophysiology in a biomarker-implying manner. The latest biosensors developed for the detection of representative psychiatric biomarkers (e.g., cortisol, dopamine, and serotonin) were comprehensively summarized and compared in their sensitivities, sensing technologies, applicable biological platforms, and integrative readouts. These well-developed biosensors are promising for facilitating the clinical utility and commercialization of point-of-care diagnostics. It is anticipated that mental healthcare could be gradually improved in multiple perspectives, ranging from innovations in psychiatric biosensors in terms of biometric elements, transducing principles, and flexible readouts, to the construction of 'Big-Data' networks utilized for sharing intractable psychiatric indicators and cases.

Smartphone-Based Rapid Quantitative Detection Platform with Imprinted Polymer for Pb (II) Detection in Real Samples

This paper reports the successful development and application of an efficient method for quantifying Pb2+ in aqueous samples using a smartphone-based colorimetric device with an imprinted polymer (IIP). The IIP was synthesized by modifying the previous study; using rhodizonate, 2-acrylamido-2-methylpropane sulfonic acid (AMPS), N,N'-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA), and potassium persulfate (KPS). The polymers were then characterized. An absorption study was performed to determine the optimal conditions for the smartphone-based colorimetric device processing. The device consists of a black box (10 × 10 × 10 cm), which was designed to ensure repeatability of the image acquisition. The methodology involved the use of a smartphone camera to capture images of IIP previously exposed at Pb2+ solutions with various concentrations, and color channel values were calculated (RGB, YMK HSVI). PLS multivariate regression was performed, and the optimum working range (0-10 mg L-1) was determined using seven principal components with a detection limit (LOD) of 0.215 mg L-1 and R2 = 0.998. The applicability of a colorimetric sensor in real samples showed a coefficient of variation (% RSD) of less than 9%, and inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) was applied as the reference method. These results confirmed that the quantitation smartphone-based colorimetric sensor is a suitable analytical tool for reliable on-site Pb2+ monitoring.

Nanozyme catalyzed-SERRS sensor for the recognition of dopamine based on AgNPs@PVP with oxidase-like activity

Dopamine (DA), as one of the most significant neurotransmitters, is closely related to several diseases. Achieving rapid and sensitive detection of DA remains a challenge. Herein, we proposed a simple, fast, and sensitive method for DA recognition based on surface-enhanced resonance Raman scattering (SERRS) technique. The synthesized silver nanoparticles coated with polyvinylpyrrolidone (AgNPs@PVP) with oxidase activity could not only oxidize 3,3',5,5'-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) directly to produce a blue oxidation state TMB (oxTMB) but also could be used as the SERS substrate to generate a strong SERRS signal. When DA was added to the above system, the blue color faded along with the decrease in the SERRS signal. The change value of SERRS intensity was in proportion to the concentration of DA in the range of 0.1-10 μM with a limit of detection of 40 nM. This method presented great potential for the recognition of DA-related diseases.

Tailoring Efficient Fluorogenic Tactic for Ultrasensitive Detection of Dopamine in Urine and Rat Brain through Real-Time and In Situ Formation of High-Performance Fluorophore

Owing to the predominance of dopamine (DA) in controlling mental health, planning an innovative method for DA detection with simplicity and high efficacy is conducive to the assessment of neurological disorders. Herein, an efficient fluorogenic tactic has been elaborated for ultrasensitive detection of DA with remarkably enhanced turn-on response. Utilizing a twisted intramolecular charge-transfer (TICT)-suppressing strategy, a highly emissive azocine derivative 11-hydroxy-2,3,6,7,11,12,13,14-octahydro-1H,5H,10H-11,14a-methanoazocino[5',4':4,5]furo[2,3-f]pyrido[3,2,1-ij]quinolin-10-one (J-Aza) is generated via a one-step reaction between DA and 8-hydroxyjulolidine. It is marvelous that J-Aza not only possesses ideal fluorescence quantum yield (ΦF) as high as 0.956 but also exhibits bathochromic shifted fluorescence (green emissive) and stronger anti-photobleaching capacity superior to traditional azocine-derived 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-5H-4,11a-methanobenzofuro[2,3-d]azocin-5-one (Aza) with moderate ΦF, blue fluorescence, and poor photostability. By confining the TICT process, the detection limit to DA can be reduced to 80 pM, which is competitive in contrast to previously reported fluorescence methods. Encouraged by the instant response (within 90 s), wide linear range (0.1-500 nM), great selectivity, and excellent sensitivity, this fluorogenic method has been used for the real-time measurement of DA contents in practical urine samples with satisfactory results. Furthermore, the cerebral DA level in the reserpine-induced depression rat model has also been evaluated by our designed method, demonstrating its potent analytical applicability in the biosensing field.

Mulberry Leaves (Morus Rubra)-Derived Blue-Emissive Carbon Dots Fed to Silkworms to Produce Augmented Silk Applicable for the Ratiometric Detection of Dopamine

Silk fibers (SF) reeled from silkworms are constituted by natural proteins, and their characteristic structural features render them applicable as materials for textiles and packaging. Modification of SF with functional materials can facilitate their applications in additional areas. In this work, the preparation of functional SF embedded with carbon dots (CD) is reported through the direct feeding of a CD-modified diet to silkworms. Fluorescent and mechanically robust SF are obtained from silkworms (Bombyx mori) that are fed on CDs synthesized from the Morus rubra variant of mulberry leaves (MB-CDs). MB-CDs are introduced to silkworms from the third instar by spraying them on the silkworm feed, the mulberry leaves. MB-CDs are synthesized hydrothermally without adding surface passivating agents and are observed to have a quantum yield of 22%. With sizes of ≈4 nm, MB-CDs exhibited blue fluorescence, and they can be used as efficient fluorophores to detect Dopamine (DA) up to the limit of 4.39 nM. The nanostructures and physical characteristics of SF weren't altered when the SF are infused with MB-CDs. Also, a novel DA sensing application based on fluorescence with the MB-CD incorporated SF is demonstrated.

Progress on the luminescence mechanism and application of carbon quantum dots based on biomass synthesis

With the continuous development of carbon-based materials, a variety of new materials have emerged one after another. Carbon Quantum Dots (CQDs) have succeeded in standing out from the crowd of new materials due to their better optical properties in biomedicine, ion detection, anti-counterfeiting materials and photocatalysis. In recent years, through the continuous exploration of CQDs, research scholars have found that the organic substances or heavy metals contained in traditional ones can cause irreversible harm to people and the environment. Therefore, the application of traditional CQDs in future studies will be gradually limited. Among various new materials, biomass raw materials have the merits of good biocompatibility, lower toxicity and green and environmental protection, which largely overcome the defects of traditional materials and have attracted many scholars to focus on the research and development of various biomass CQDs. This paper summarises the optical properties, fluorescence mechanisms, synthetic methods, functionalisation modulation of biomass CQDs and their relevant research progress in the fields of ion detection, bioimaging, biomedicine, biosensing, solar cells, anti-counterfeit materials, photocatalysis and capacitors. Finally, the paper concludes with some discussion of the challenges and prospects of this exciting and promising field of application.

Novel highly selective fluorescence sensing strategy for Mercury(Ⅱ) in water based on nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots

In this work, a fluorescent signal-closing probe of nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots (NCQDs) was developed for quantitative detection of mercury ions (Hg²⁺). In this detection system, the NCQDs with high quantum yield (QY, 63.80 %) were synthesized via simple hydrothermal method with Methyl Glycine Diacetic acid Trisodium Salt (MGDA) and m-phenylenediamine (MPD) as carbon and nitrogen sources. The NCQDs have a typical surface structure and exceptional fluorescence stability, and their fluorescence zones are centered on excitation wavelengths of 440 nm and emission wavelengths of 510 nm. Under optimal conditions, the NCQDs have outstanding anti-interference ability to various ions and high selectivity to mercury ions. The fluorescence intensity of the detection system is weakened due to the generation of non-fluorescent groups caused by the static quenching effect. The fluorescence quenching efficiency shows a fascinating linear relationship with Hg²⁺ ions at 0-100 μM (y = 0.0051x-0.015, R² = 0.9943), and the detection limit is 0.9 μM. Acute toxicity test shows that NCQDs have low toxicity and little harm to environment. The detection system can be used for the quantification of mercury ions in environmental water samples, and the recovery rate is between 99.64 % and 103.43 %, indicating that it is a simple and economical fluorescence detection method.

An electrochemical aptasensor for detection of prostate-specific antigen-based on carbon quantum dots-gold nanoparticles

In this work, an electrochemical aptasensor was described for the determination of prostate-specific antigen (PSA). Aptamer chains were decorated on the surface of a glassy carbon electrode (GCE) via carbon quantum dots/Au nanoparticles (Au/CQD). Structural analysis that was used to characterize the prepared materials shows that Au/CQD nanoparticles synthesized in a spherical shape with an average size of 70 nm. Furthermore, the combination of Au nanoparticles with CQD resulted in formation of crystalline the structure of the Au/CQD composite. To study the electrochemical performance of the prepared aptasensor, cyclic voltammetry, square wave voltammetry, and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy were used. The results show that the aptasensor has a good selectivity to PSA over other biomaterials with the time optimized about 30 min. K₄ [Fe(CN)₆ ] was used as an electrochemical probe with the limit of detection about 2 fg⋅mL^-1 . To avoid the hazardous nature of K₄ [Fe(CN)₆ ], a label-based aptasensor was prepared using methylene blue as an electrochemical signal producer. They provide the capability of electrochemical detection in buffer phosphate solution with high sensitivity.

Green Synthesis of Highly Fluorescent Carbon Dots from Bovine Serum Albumin for Linezolid Drug Delivery as Potential Wound Healing Biomaterial: Bio-Synergistic Approach, Antibacterial Activity, and In Vitro and Ex Vivo Evaluation

A simple and green approach was developed to produce novel highly fluorescent bovine serum albumin carbon dots (BCDs) via facile one-step hydrothermal treatment, using bovine serum albumin as a precursor carbon source. Inherent blue photoluminescence of the synthesized BCDs provided a maximum photostability of 90.5 ± 1.2% and was characterized via TEM, FT-IR, XPS, XRD, UV-visible, and zeta potential analyses. By virtue of their extremely small size, intrinsic optical and photoluminescence properties, superior photostability, and useful non-covalent interactions with the synthetic oxazolidinone antibiotic linezolid (LNZ), BCDs were investigated as fluorescent nano-biocarriers for LNZ drug delivery. The release profile of LNZ from the drug delivery system (LNZ-BCDs) revealed a distinct biphasic release, which is beneficial for mollifying the lethal incidents associated with wound infection. The effective wound healing performance of the developed LNZ-BCDs were evaluated through various in vitro and ex vivo assays such as MTT, ex vivo hemolysis, in vitro antibacterial activity, in vitro skin-related enzyme inhibition, and scratch wound healing assays. The examination of LNZ-BCDs as an efficient wound healing biomaterial illustrated excellent biocompatibility and low cytotoxicity against normal human skin fibroblast (HSF) cell line, indicating distinct antibacterial activity against the most common wound infectious pathogens including Staphylococcus aureus (ATCC^® 25922) and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus, robust anti-elastase, anti-collagenase, and anti-tyrosinase activities, and enhanced cell proliferation and migration effect. The obtained results confirmed the feasibility of using the newly designed fluorescent LNZ-BCDs nano-bioconjugate as a unique antibacterial biomaterial for effective wound healing and tissue regeneration. Besides, the greenly synthesized BCDs could be considered as a great potential substitute for toxic nanoparticles in biomedical applications due to their biocompatibility and intense fluorescence characteristics and in pharmaceutical industries as promising drug delivery nano-biocarriers for effective wound healing applications.

Carbon quantum dots with pH-responsive orange-/red-light emission for fluorescence imaging of intracellular pH

N-doped carbon quantum dots (N-CDs) with polyaminobenzene hydrazine as precursor were prepared by solvothermal method for the monitoring of pH fluctuation in HeLa cells via fluorescence imaging. The N-CDs show two emission wavelengths at 582 and 640 nm under different pH with two excitation wavelengths. The fluorescence intensity at 640 nm (λ_ex = 520 nm) and the ratio of F₅₈₂/F₆₄₀ (λ_ex = 470 nm) linearly increase with pH in the range of 2.4 ~ 3.6 (R² = 992) and 5.6 ~ 7.6 (R² = 0.987), respectively. The sensor exhibits high sensitivity and reversibility and anti-interference capability, thus enabling sensing pH change in intracellular environment in real time, as demonstrated by successful monitoring of intracellular pH fluctuation during H₂O₂ stimulation in HeLa cells.

Smartphone-Based Dopamine Detection by Fluorescent Supramolecular Sensor

Supramolecular recognition of dopamine by two quinoxaline cavitands was studied in solution by fluorescence titrations, ESI-MS and ROESY measurements. In addition, the tetraquinoxaline cavitand was dropped onto a siloxane-based polymeric solid support, obtaining a sensor able to detect dopamine in a linear range of concentrations 10 Mm-100 pM, with a detection limit of 1 pM, much lower than the normal concentration values in the common human fluids (plasma, urine and saliva), by using a simple smartphone as detector. This sensor shows also good selectivity for dopamine respect to the other common analytes contained in a saliva sample and can be reused after acid-base cycles, paving the way for the realization of real practical sensor for human dopamine detection.

Catalytic nanozyme Zn/Cl-doped carbon quantum dots as ratiometric fluorescent probe for sequential on-off-on detection of riboflavin, Cu2+ and thiamine

A novel metal-doped Zn/Cl carbon quantum dots (Zn/Cl-CQDs) was developed successfully as ratiometric fluorescent probes for the sequential on-off-on detection of riboflavin, Cu²⁺ ion and thiamine. The excellent catalytic performance of the Zn/Cl-CQDs nanozyme serves as an ideal platform for sensitive detection of thiamine. Due to the addition of riboflavin to the Zn/Cl-CQDs, the blue emission peak of Zn/Cl-CQDs at 440 nm remains unaffected and used as an internal reference approach, while the green emission peak of riboflavin at 520 nm appeared and increased remarkably. Following the presence of Cu²⁺, a quenching blue fluorescence signal of Zn/Cl-CQDs was observed which resulted in consequent fluorescent 'turn-off' response toward Cu²⁺ ion. Finally, upon the addition of thiamine to the above solution under alkaline condition, the blue emission of Zn/Cl-CQDs was gradually recovered. The prepared Zn/Cl-CQDs could act as a nanozyme catalyst for directly catalyzing the oxidation of non-fluorescent substrate of thiamine to produce highly fluorescent substrate of thiochrome. As a result, the blue fluorescence emission peak at 440 nm was recovered. Eventually, the sequential detection properties of ratiometric probes for riboflavin, Cu²⁺ ion and thiamine were successfully applied in VB2 tablets, drinking water and VB1 tablet with good recoveries of 96.21%, 98.25% and 98.44%, respectively.

Dual recognition strategy for selective fluorescent detection of dopamine and antioxidants based on graphite carbon nitride in human blood serum

In this work, a strong blue-emitting fluorescent biosensor based on graphite carbon nitride nanoparticles (GCNNs) (E_x = 340 nm and E_m = 435 nm) was synthesized by a facile one-step hydrothermal method. With the aid of hydrogen peroxide and horseradish peroxidase, pyrocatechol structure of dopamine (DA) was oxidized to o-quinone structure of polydopamine (PDA) by hydroxyl radical. PDA was able to rapidly and significantly quench fluorescence of GCNNs. In the meanwhile, oxidative self-polymerization from DA to PDA would be blocked by antioxidants, such as glutathione (GSH) and ascorbic acid (AA). Thus, the fluorescence of GCNNs@DA sensor would be recovered owing to the decrease of o-quinone. Based on above-mentioned dual recognition strategy of "turn-off" and "turn off-on", a fast, simple and ultrasensitive method was developed to measure DA and antioxidants. Under the optimal experimental conditions, the detection limits of DA, GSH and AA were 0.064 μmol L^-1, 0.11 μmol L^-1 and 0.16 μmol L^-1 with relative standard deviations of 1.7%, 9.3% and 8.0%, respectively. As one of metal-free quantum dots, our GCNNs-based sensors were also successfully applied to the determination of DA as well as GSH and AA in human serum. The recoveries for the spiked samples were in the range of 93.8%-109% and 95.0%-110% of DA and antioxidants, which shows great promise to clinicalapplication.

Ratiometric fluorescence and smartphone dual-mode detection of glutathione using carbon dots coupled with Ag+-triggered oxidation of o-phenylenediamine

Developing ratiometric fluorescence and smartphone dual-mode bioanalysis methods is important but challenging. A ratiometric fluorescence method for determining glutathione (GSH) using carbon dots (CDs) and Ag⁺-triggered o-phenylenediamine (OPD) oxidation is described here. Ag⁺oxidizes OPD to give 2,3-diaminophenazine (oxOPD), which effectively quenches CD fluorescence at 436 nm through the inner filter effect and causes a new emission peak at 561 nm. GSH chelates with Ag⁺and prevents the Ag⁺oxidizing OPD and therefore effectively preserves CD emission at 436 nm (blue) and allows only weak oxOPD fluorescence at 561 nm (orange) to occur. The oxOPD to CD fluorescence intensity ratio decreased linearly as the GSH concentration increased in the range 0-150 nM, and the detection limit was 15 nM. The ratiometric fluorescence probe lit with an ultraviolet lamp clearly changed color from orange to blue as the GSH concentration increased. An image was acquired using a smartphone camera and converted into digital values. The blue and red channel ratio was calculated and used to quantify GSH. The method therefore allows dual-mode detection of GSH.

Catalytical feature of optical nanoprobes of boron nitride quantum dots in the presence of Cu2+ for the determination of dopamine

Monitoring the concentration of dopamine (DA) is vital for preventing and diagnosing DA related diseases. In contrast to the traditional sensing methods for DA, in which direct or indirect effects on the optical probes are often recorded, a novel sensing concept is disclosed based on as a result of the in situ formation of polydopamine (PDA) originating from the synergetic effect between boron nitride quantum dots (BNQDs) and Cu2+. In the co-presence of BNQDs and Cu2+, DA was catalytically oxidized to PDA, accompanied by an obvious color change from colorless to brown. In contrast to previous reports, in which BNQDs have been employed as an optical probe, herein, the BNQDs not only acted as the optical energy donor, but also as the catalysts for the formation of PDA. The quenching efficiency resulting from the inner filter effect and the electron transfer between the BNQDs and PDA was directly proportional to the concentration of DA, ranging linearly from 2 to 80 μM with a limit of detection of 0.49 μM. The present system exhibited an outstanding selectivity for DA among other interfering coexisting biomolecules. Furthermore, the practical application of the proposed platform was verified by assaying DA in human plasma samples, and satisfactory recoveries ranging from 101.24% to 111.98% were obtained. With the satisfactory reliability, repeatability and stability, the proposed simple sensor showed significant potential for use in DA detection in other biomedical applications.

Nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots fabricated from cellulolytic enzyme lignin and its application to the determination of cytochrome c and trypsin

A sensitive and effective strategy for the detection of cytochrome c (Cyt c) and trypsin was developed using biomass nitrogen-doped carbon quantum dots (N-CQDs) as the fluorescence probe. N-CQDs were synthesized through a one-pot hydrothermal method by utilizing cellulolytic enzyme lignin as the carbon source and ammonia as the solvent and nitrogen source. The obtained N-CQDs had good water solubility and stable optical properties. The introduction of nitrogen increased fluorescence quantum yield (QY) to 8.23%, which was almost four times as high as that before nitrogen doping. The N-CQDs were fabricated as a label-free biosensor to detect Cyt c and trypsin. The fluorescence of N-CQDs was quenched with positively charged Cyt c due to electrostatic induction aggregation and static quenching. However, Cyt c tended to be hydrolyzed into small peptides in the presence of trypsin, which caused fluorescence recovery of the N-CQDs/Cyt c complex. A wide linear response range was achieved for Cyt c within 1-50 μM and the developed N-CQDs/Cyt c complex displayed a linear response for trypsin within 0.09-5.4 U/mL. The detection limits were 0.29 μM for Cyt c and 0.013 U/mL for trypsin, respectively. Furthermore, this assay had been applied to Cyt c and trypsin detection in serum samples with the recoveries in the range of 94.6-98.5% and 95.5-102.0%, respectively. The established method was sensitive, selective, easy to operate, and low cost, which proved its potential application in clinical diagnosis. The synthesis and fluorescence mechanism of N-CQDs and the strategy for Cyt c and trypsin detection.

Determination of dopamine based on its enhancement of gold-silver nanocluster fluorescence

Dopamine (DA) is one of the most important neurotransmitters in human bodies and its sensitive detection remains a challenge. Herein, protein stabilized gold-silver nanoclusters (Au-AgNCs) were synthesized at first. It was found that the introduction of dopamine lead to a significant enhancement of the fluorescence from the nanoclusters, together with a red-shift of the peak. Through related spectroscopic and electrochemical studies, the fluorescence enhancement was attributed to the reduction of the nanoclusters by dopamine. This enhancement was then adopted for quantitative measurements, and linear responses toward dopamine in the ranges 0.01-1.7 μM and 1.7-10 μM were constructed. A limit of detection was obtained at 6.9 nM. The present study provided a facile and efficient method for the determination of dopamine, and the method was successfully applied for related measurements in serum samples.