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Moreira-Júnior RE, Guimarães MADF, Etcheverria da Silva M, Maioli TU, Faria AMC, Brunialti-Godard AL. Animal model for high consumption and preference of ethanol and its interplay with high sugar and butter diet, behavior, and neuroimmune system. Front Nutr 2023; 10:1141655. [PMID: 37063320 PMCID: PMC10097969 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2023.1141655] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Accepted: 03/10/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
IntroductionMechanisms that dictate the preference for ethanol and its addiction are not only restricted to the central nervous system (CNS). An increasing body of evidence has suggested that abusive ethanol consumption directly affects the immune system, which in turn interacts with the CNS, triggering neuronal responses and changes, resulting in dependence on the drug. It is known that neuroinflammation and greater immune system reactivity are observed in behavioral disorders and that these can regulate gene transcription. However, there is little information about these findings of the transcriptional profile of reward system genes in high consumption and alcohol preference. In this regard, there is a belief that, in the striatum, an integrating region of the brain reward system, the interaction of the immune response and the transcriptional profile of the Lrrk2 gene that is associated with loss of control and addiction to ethanol may influence the alcohol consumption and preference. Given this information, this study aimed to assess whether problematic alcohol consumption affects the transcriptional profile of the Lrrk2 gene, neuroinflammation, and behavior and whether these changes are interconnected.MethodsAn animal model developed by our research group has been used in which male C57BL/6 mice and knockouts for the Il6 and Nfat genes were subjected to a protocol of high fat and sugar diet intake and free choice of ethanol in the following stages: Stage 1 (T1)—Dietary treatment, for 8 weeks, in which the animals receive high-calorie diet, High Sugar and Butter (HSB group), or standard diet, American Institute of Nutrition 93-Growth (AIN93G group); and Stage 2 (T2)—Ethanol consumption, in which the animals are submitted, for 4 weeks, to alcohol within the free choice paradigm, being each of them divided into 10 groups, four groups continued with the same diet and in the other six the HSB diet is substituted by the AIN93G diet. Five groups had access to only water, while the five others had a free choice between water and a 10% ethanol solution. The weight of the animals was evaluated weekly and the consumption of water and ethanol daily. At the end of the 12-week experiment, anxiety-like behavior was evaluated by the light/dark box test; compulsive-like behavior by Marble burying, transcriptional regulation of genes Lrrk2, Tlr4, Nfat, Drd1, Drd2, Il6, Il1β, Il10, and iNOS by RT-qPCR; and inflammatory markers by flow cytometry. Animals that the diet was replaced had an ethanol high preference and consumption.Results and discussionWe observed that high consumption and preference for ethanol resulted in (1) elevation of inflammatory cells in the brain, (2) upregulation of genes associated with cytokines (Il6 and Il1β) and pro-inflammatory signals (iNOS and Nfat), downregulation of anti-inflammatory cytokine (Il10), dopamine receptor (Drd2), and the Lrrk2 gene in the striatum, and (3) behavioral changes such as decreased anxiety-like behavior, and increased compulsive-like behavior. Our findings suggest that interactions between the immune system, behavior, and transcriptional profile of the Lrrk2 gene influence the ethanol preferential and abusive consumption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Renato Elias Moreira-Júnior
- Laboratório de Genética Animal e Humana, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Mauro Andrade de Freitas Guimarães
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Miguel Etcheverria da Silva
- Laboratório de Genética Animal e Humana, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Tatiani Uceli Maioli
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ana Maria Caetano Faria
- Laboratório de Imunobiologia, Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia Brunialti-Godard
- Laboratório de Genética Animal e Humana, Departamento de Genética, Ecologia e Evolução, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, Brazil
- *Correspondence: Ana Lúcia Brunialti Godard,
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Susceptibility to Oxidative Stress Is Determined by Genetic Background in Neuronal Cell Cultures. eNeuro 2018; 5:eN-NWR-0335-17. [PMID: 29568799 PMCID: PMC5861596 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0335-17.2018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2017] [Revised: 01/28/2018] [Accepted: 02/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) leads to a deleterious and multifactorial secondary inflammatory response in the brain. Oxidative stress from the inflammation likely contributes to the brain damage although it is unclear to which extent. A largely unexplored approach is to consider phenotypic regulation of oxidative stress levels. Genetic polymorphism influences inflammation in the central nervous system and it is possible that the antioxidative response differs between phenotypes and affects the severity of the secondary injury. We therefore compared the antioxidative response in inbred rat strains dark agouti (DA) to piebald viral glaxo (PVG). DA has high susceptibility to inflammatory challenges and PVG is protected. Primary neuronal cell cultures were exposed to peroxynitrite (ONOO-), nitric oxide (NO), superoxide (O2-), and 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE). Our findings demonstrated a phenotypic control of the neuronal antioxidative response, specific to manganese O2- dismutase (MnSOD). DA neurons had increased levels of MnSOD, equal levels of peroxiredoxin 5 (PRDX5), decreased oxidative stress markers 3-nitrotyrosine (3-NT) and 4-HNE and decreased neuronal death detected by lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) release after 24 h, and higher oxidative stress levels by CellROX than PVG after 2 h. It is possible that DA neurons had a phenotypic adaptation to a fiercer inflammatory environment. ONOO- was confirmed as the most powerful oxidative damage mediator, while 4-HNE caused few oxidative effects. Inducible NO synthase (iNOS) was not induced, suggesting that inflammatory, while not oxidative stimulation was required. These findings indicate that phenotypic antioxidative regulation affects the secondary inflammation, which should be considered in future individualized treatments and when evaluating antioxidative pharmacological interventions.
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Chiu CC, Liao YE, Yang LY, Wang JY, Tweedie D, Karnati HK, Greig NH, Wang JY. Neuroinflammation in animal models of traumatic brain injury. J Neurosci Methods 2016; 272:38-49. [PMID: 27382003 PMCID: PMC5201203 DOI: 10.1016/j.jneumeth.2016.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 177] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is a leading cause of mortality and morbidity worldwide. Neuroinflammation is prominent in the short and long-term consequences of neuronal injuries that occur after TBI. Neuroinflammation involves the activation of glia, including microglia and astrocytes, to release inflammatory mediators within the brain, and the subsequent recruitment of peripheral immune cells. Various animal models of TBI have been developed that have proved valuable to elucidate the pathophysiology of the disorder and to assess the safety and efficacy of novel therapies prior to clinical trials. These models provide an excellent platform to delineate key injury mechanisms that associate with types of injury (concussion, contusion, and penetration injuries) that occur clinically for the investigation of mild, moderate, and severe forms of TBI. Additionally, TBI modeling in genetically engineered mice, in particular, has aided the identification of key molecules and pathways for putative injury mechanisms, as targets for development of novel therapies for human TBI. This Review details the evidence showing that neuroinflammation, characterized by the activation of microglia and astrocytes and elevated production of inflammatory mediators, is a critical process occurring in various TBI animal models, provides a broad overview of commonly used animal models of TBI, and overviews representative techniques to quantify markers of the brain inflammatory process. A better understanding of neuroinflammation could open therapeutic avenues for abrogation of secondary cell death and behavioral symptoms that may mediate the progression of TBI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chong-Chi Chiu
- Department of General Surgery, Chi Mei Medical Center, Tainan and Liouying, Taiwan
| | - Yi-En Liao
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Ling-Yu Yang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Jing-Ya Wang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - David Tweedie
- Drug Design & Development Section, Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Hanuma K Karnati
- Drug Design & Development Section, Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Nigel H Greig
- Drug Design & Development Section, Translational Gerontology Branch, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Jia-Yi Wang
- Graduate Institute of Medical Sciences, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Non-mammalian Animal Models Offer New Perspectives on the Treatment of TBI. CURRENT PHYSICAL MEDICINE AND REHABILITATION REPORTS 2016. [DOI: 10.1007/s40141-016-0107-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is one of the most common causes of death and disability, and cerebral hypoxia is a frequently occurring harmful secondary event in TBI patients. The hypoxic conditions that occur on the scene of accident, where the airways are often obstructed or breathing is in other ways impaired, could be reproduced using animal TBI models where oxygen delivery is strictly controlled throughout the entire experimental procedure. Monitoring physiological parameters of the animal is of utmost importance in order to maintain an adequate quality of the experiment. Peripheral oxygen saturation, O2 pressure (pO2) in the blood, or fraction of inhaled O2 (FiO2) could be used as goals to validate the hypoxic conditions. Different models of traumatic brain injury could be used to inflict desired injury type, whereas effects then could be studied using radiological, physiological and functional tests. In order to confirm that the brain has been affected by a hypoxic injury, appropriate substances in the affected cerebral tissue, cerebrospinal fluid, or serum should be analyzed.
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Günther M, Davidsson J, Plantman S, Norgren S, Mathiesen T, Risling M. Neuroprotective effects of N-acetylcysteine amide on experimental focal penetrating brain injury in rats. J Clin Neurosci 2015; 22:1477-83. [PMID: 26100161 DOI: 10.1016/j.jocn.2015.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2015] [Accepted: 03/03/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
We examined the effects of N-acetylcysteine amide (NACA) in the secondary inflammatory response following a novel method of focal penetrating traumatic brain injury (TBI) in rats. N-acetylcysteine (NAC) has limited but well-documented neuroprotective effects after experimental central nervous system ischemia and TBI, but its bioavailability is very low. We tested NACA, a modified form of NAC with higher membrane and blood-brain barrier permeability. Focal penetrating TBI was produced in male Sprague-Dawley rats randomly selected for NACA treatment (n=5) and no treatment (n=5). In addition, four animals were submitted to sham surgery. After 2 hours or 24 hours the brains were removed, fresh frozen, cut in 14 μm coronal sections and subjected to immunohistochemistry, immunofluorescence, Fluoro-Jade and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) analyses. All treated animals were given 300 mg/kg NACA intraperitoneally (IP) 2 minutes post trauma. The 24 hour survival group was given an additional bolus of 300 mg/kg IP after 4 hours. NACA treatment decreased neuronal degeneration by Fluoro-Jade at 24 hours with a mean change of 35.0% (p<0.05) and decreased TUNEL staining indicative of apoptosis at 2 hours with a mean change of 38.7% (p<0.05). Manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD) increased in the NACA treatment group at 24 hours with a mean change of 35.9% (p<0.05). Levels of migrating macrophages and activated microglia (Ox-42/CD11b), nitric oxide-producing inflammatory enzyme iNOS, peroxynitrite marker 3-nitrotyrosine, NFκB translocated to the nuclei, cytochrome C and Bcl-2 were not affected. NACA treatment decreased neuronal degeneration and apoptosis and increased levels of antioxidative enzyme MnSOD. The antiapoptotic effect was likely regulated by pathways other than cytochrome C. Therefore, NACA prevents brain tissue damage after focal penetrating TBI, warranting further studies towards a clinical application.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mattias Günther
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, B1:5, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden.
| | - Johan Davidsson
- Department of Applied Mechanics, Division of Vehicle Safety, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden
| | - Stefan Plantman
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, B1:5, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
| | - Svante Norgren
- Department of Women's and Children's Health, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Tiit Mathiesen
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mårten Risling
- Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Retzius väg 8, B1:5, Stockholm SE-171 77, Sweden
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COX-2 regulation and TUNEL-positive cell death differ between genders in the secondary inflammatory response following experimental penetrating focal brain injury in rats. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2015; 157:649-59. [PMID: 25597483 DOI: 10.1007/s00701-014-2331-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2014] [Accepted: 12/22/2014] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Traumatic brain injury is followed by secondary neuronal degeneration, largely dependent on an inflammatory response. This response is probably gender specific, since females are better protected than males in experimental models. The reasons are not fully known. We examined aspects of the inflammatory response following experimental TBI in male and female rats to explore possible gender differences at 24 h and 72 h after trauma, times of peak histological inflammation and neuronal degeneration. METHODS A penetrating brain injury model was used to produce penetrating focal TBI in 20 Sprague-Dawley rats, 5 males and 5 females for each time point. After 24 and 72 h the brains were removed and subjected to in situ hybridization and immunohistochemical analyses for COX-2, iNOS, osteopontin, glial fibrillary acidic protein, 3-nitrotyrosine, TUNEL and Fluoro-Jade. RESULTS COX-2 mRNA and protein levels were increased in the perilesional area compared to the uninjured contralateral side and significantly higher in males at 24 h and 72 h (p < 0.05). iNOS mRNA was significantly increased in females at 24 h (p < 0.05) although protein was not. TUNEL was increased in male rats after 24 h (p < 0.05). Glial fibrillary acidic protein, osteopontin, 3-nitrotyrosine and Fluoro-Jade stained degenerating neurons were increased in the perilesional area, showing no difference between genders. CONCLUSIONS COX-2 regulation differed between genders after TBI. The increased COX-2 expression in male rats correlated with increased apoptotic cell death detected by increased TUNEL staining at 24 h, but not with neuronal necrosis measured by Flouro-Jade. Astrogliosis and microgliosis did not differ, confirming a comparable level of trauma. The gender-specific trait of the secondary inflammatory response may be connected to prostaglandin regulation, which may partially explain gender variances in outcome after TBI.
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Shock wave trauma leads to inflammatory response and morphological activation in macrophage cell lines, but does not induce iNOS or NO synthesis. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 2014; 156:2365-78. [PMID: 25305089 DOI: 10.1007/s00701-014-2243-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2014] [Accepted: 09/15/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Experimental CNS trauma results in post-traumatic inflammation for which microglia and macrophages are vital. Experimental brain contusion entails iNOS synthesis and formation of free radicals, NO and peroxynitrite. Shock wave trauma can be used as a model of high-energy trauma in cell culture. It is known that shock wave trauma causes sub-lytic injury and inflammatory activation in endothelial cells. Mechanical disruption of red blood cells can induce iNOS synthesis in experimental systems. However, it is not known whether trauma can induce activation and iNOS synthesis in inflammatory cell lines with microglial or macrophage lineage. We studied the response and activation in two macrophage cell lines and the consequence for iNOS and NO formation after shock wave trauma. METHODS Two macrophage cell lines from rat (NR8383) and mouse (RAW264.7) were exposed to shock wave trauma by the Flyer Plate method. The cellular response was investigated by Affymetrix gene arrays. Cell survival and morphological activation was monitored for 24 h in a Cell-IQ live cell imaging system. iNOS induction and NO synthesis were analyzed by Western blot, in cell Western IR-immunofluorescence, and Griess nitrite assay. RESULTS Morphological signs of activation were detected in both macrophage cell lines. The activation of RAW264.7 was statistically significant (p < 0.05), but activation of NR8383 did not pass the threshold of statistical significance alpha (p > 0.05). The growth rate of idle cells was unaffected and growth arrest was not seen. Trauma did not result in iNOS synthesis or NO induction. Gene array analyses showed high enrichment for inflammatory response, G-protein coupled signaling, detection of stimulus and chemotaxis. Shock wave trauma combined with low LPS stimulation instead led to high enrichment in apoptosis, IL-8 signaling, mitosis and DNA-related activities. LPS/IFN-ɣ stimulation caused iNOS and NO induction and morphological activation in both cell lines. CONCLUSIONS Shock wave trauma by the Flyer Plate method caused an inflammatory response and morphological signs of activation in two macrophage cell lines, while iNOS induction appeared to require humoral signaling by LPS/IFN-ɣ. Our findings indicated that direct energy transfer by trauma can activate macrophages directly without humoral mediators, which comprises a novel activation mechanism of macrophages.
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Balu R. Inflammation and Immune System Activation After Traumatic Brain Injury. Curr Neurol Neurosci Rep 2014; 14:484. [DOI: 10.1007/s11910-014-0484-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
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The reduction of EPSC amplitude in CA1 pyramidal neurons by the peroxynitrite donor SIN-1 requires Ca2+ influx via postsynaptic non-L-type voltage gated calcium channels. Neurochem Res 2014; 39:361-71. [PMID: 24375019 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-013-1233-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2013] [Revised: 11/28/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The peroxynitrite free radical (ONOO(-)) modulation of miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents (mEPSCs) and spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) was investigated in rat CA1 pyramidal neurons using the whole-cell patch clamp technique. SIN-1(3-morpholino-sydnonimine), which can lead the simultaneous generation of superoxide anion and nitric oxide, and then form the highly reactive species ONOO(-), induced dose-dependent inhibition in amplitudes of both mEPSCs and sEPSCs. The SIN-1 action on mEPSC amplitude was completely blocked by U0126, a selective MEK inhibitor, suggesting that MEK contributed to the action of ONOO(-) on mEPSCs. The effect of SIN-1 was completely occluded either in the presence of the calcium chelator EGTA or the non-selective calcium channel antagonist Cd(2+). Furthermore, the application of nifedipine (20 μM), the L-type calcium channel blocker, had no effect on the ONOO(-)-induced decrease in mEPSC amplitude, excluding a role for L-type voltage-gated Ca(2+) channels in this process. SIN-1 inhibited the frequency of sEPSCs but had no effect on mEPSC frequency, which suggested a presynaptic action potential-dependent the action of ONOO(-) at CA1 pyramidal neuron synapses. The best-known glutamatergic input to CA1 pyramidal neurons is via Schaffer collaterals from CA3 area. However, no changes were observed in slices treated with SIN-1 on the spontaneous firing rates of CA3 pyramidal neurons. These findings suggested that SIN-1 inhibited glutamatergic synaptic transmission of CA1 pyramidal neurons by a postsynaptic non-L-type voltage gated calcium channel-dependent mechanism.
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