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Escobar-Niño A, Harzen A, Stolze SC, Nakagami H, Fernández-Acero FJ. The Adaptation of Botrytis cinerea Extracellular Vesicles Proteome to Surrounding Conditions: Revealing New Tools for Its Infection Process. J Fungi (Basel) 2023; 9:872. [PMID: 37754980 PMCID: PMC10532283 DOI: 10.3390/jof9090872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2023] [Revised: 08/20/2023] [Accepted: 08/22/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are membranous particles released by different organisms. EVs carry several sets of macromolecules implicated in cell communication. EVs have become a relevant topic in the study of pathogenic fungi due to their relationship with fungal-host interactions. One of the essential research areas in this field is the characterization protein profile of EVs since plant fungal pathogens rely heavily on secreted proteins to invade their hosts. However, EVs of Botrytis cinerea are little known, which is one of the most devastating phytopathogenic fungi. The present study has two main objectives: the characterization of B. cinerea EVs proteome changes under two pathogenic conditions and the description of their potential role during the infective process. All the experimental procedure was conducted in B. cinerea growing in a minimal salt medium supplemented with glucose as a constitutive stage and deproteinized tomato cell walls (TCW) as a virulence inductor. The isolation of EVs was performed by differential centrifugation, filtration, ultrafiltration, and sucrose cushion ultracentrifugation. EVs fractions were visualised by TEM using negative staining. Proteomic analysis of EVs cargo was addressed by LC-MS/MS. The methodology used allowed the correct isolation of B. cinerea EVs and the identification of a high number of EV proteins, including potential EV markers. The isolated EVs displayed differences in morphology under both assayed conditions. GO analysis of EV proteins showed enrichment in cell wall metabolism and proteolysis under TCW. KEGG analysis also showed the difference in EVs function under both conditions, highlighting the presence of potential virulence/pathogenic factors implicated in cell wall metabolism, among others. This work describes the first evidence of EVs protein cargo adaptation in B. cinerea, which seems to play an essential role in its infection process, sharing crucial functions with the conventional secretion pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Almudena Escobar-Niño
- Microbiology Laboratory, Institute for Viticulture and Agri-Food Research (IVAGRO), Faculty of Environmental and Marine Sciences, Department of Biomedicine, Biotechnology and Public Health, University of Cádiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain;
| | - Anne Harzen
- Protein Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany; (A.H.); (S.C.S.); (H.N.)
| | - Sara C. Stolze
- Protein Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany; (A.H.); (S.C.S.); (H.N.)
| | - Hirofumi Nakagami
- Protein Mass Spectrometry, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany; (A.H.); (S.C.S.); (H.N.)
- Basic Immune System of Plants, Max Planck Institute for Plant Breeding Research, 50829 Cologne, Germany
| | - Francisco J. Fernández-Acero
- Microbiology Laboratory, Institute for Viticulture and Agri-Food Research (IVAGRO), Faculty of Environmental and Marine Sciences, Department of Biomedicine, Biotechnology and Public Health, University of Cádiz, 11510 Puerto Real, Spain;
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2
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Wildeman AS, Patel NK, Cormack BP, Culotta VC. The role of manganese in morphogenesis and pathogenesis of the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans. PLoS Pathog 2023; 19:e1011478. [PMID: 37363924 PMCID: PMC10328360 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1011478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 07/07/2023] [Accepted: 06/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Metals such as Fe, Cu, Zn, and Mn are essential trace nutrients for all kingdoms of life, including microbial pathogens and their hosts. During infection, the mammalian host attempts to starve invading microbes of these micronutrients through responses collectively known as nutritional immunity. Nutritional immunity for Zn, Fe and Cu has been well documented for fungal infections; however Mn handling at the host-fungal pathogen interface remains largely unexplored. This work establishes the foundation of fungal resistance against Mn associated nutritional immunity through the characterization of NRAMP divalent metal transporters in the opportunistic fungal pathogen, Candida albicans. Here, we identify C. albicans Smf12 and Smf13 as two NRAMP transporters required for cellular Mn accumulation. Single or combined smf12Δ/Δ and smf13Δ/Δ mutations result in a 10-80 fold reduction in cellular Mn with an additive effect of double mutations and no losses in cellular Cu, Fe or Zn. As a result of low cellular Mn, the mutants exhibit impaired activity of mitochondrial Mn-superoxide dismutase 2 (Sod2) and cytosolic Mn-Sod3 but no defects in cytosolic Cu/Zn-Sod1 activity. Mn is also required for activity of Golgi mannosyltransferases, and smf12Δ/Δ and smf13Δ/Δ mutants show a dramatic loss in cell surface phosphomannan and in glycosylation of proteins, including an intracellular acid phosphatase and a cell wall Cu-only Sod5 that is key for oxidative stress resistance. Importantly, smf12Δ/Δ and smf13Δ/Δ mutants are defective in formation of hyphal filaments, a deficiency rescuable by supplemental Mn. In a disseminated mouse model for candidiasis where kidney is the primary target tissue, we find a marked loss in total kidney Mn during fungal invasion, implying host restriction of Mn. In this model, smf12Δ/Δ and smf13Δ/Δ C. albicans mutants displayed a significant loss in virulence. These studies establish a role for Mn in Candida pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asia S Wildeman
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Naisargi K Patel
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Brendan P Cormack
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Valeria C Culotta
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
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3
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Lapiere A, Richard ML. Bacterial-fungal metabolic interactions within the microbiota and their potential relevance in human health and disease: a short review. Gut Microbes 2022; 14:2105610. [PMID: 35903007 PMCID: PMC9341359 DOI: 10.1080/19490976.2022.2105610] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The composition of the microbiota is the focus of many recent publications describing the effects of the microbiota on host health. In recent years, research has progressed further, investigating not only the diversity of genes and functions but also metabolites produced by microorganisms composing the microbiota of various niches and how these metabolites affect and shape the microbial community. While an abundance of data has been published on bacterial interactions, much less data are available on the interactions of bacteria with another component of the microbiota: the fungal community. Although present in smaller numbers, fungi are essential to the balance of this complex microbial ecosystem. Both bacterial and fungal communities produce metabolites that influence their own population but also that of the other. However, to date, interkingdom interactions occurring through metabolites produced by bacteria and fungi have rarely been described. In this review, we describe the major metabolites produced by both kingdoms and discuss how they influence each other, by what mechanisms and with what consequences for the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexia Lapiere
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France,Paris Center for Microbiome Medicine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, France
| | - Mathias L Richard
- Université Paris-Saclay, INRAE, AgroParisTech, Micalis Institute, Jouy-en-Josas, France,Paris Center for Microbiome Medicine, Fédération Hospitalo-Universitaire, France,CONTACT Mathias L Richard INRAE, Micalis Institute, Probihote Team, Domaine de Vilvert, 78352, Jouy en Josas, France
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4
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Anabosi D, Meir Z, Shadkchan Y, Handelman M, Abou-Kandil A, Yap A, Urlings D, Gold MS, Krappmann S, Haas H, Osherov N. Transcriptional response of Aspergillus fumigatus to copper and the role of the Cu chaperones. Virulence 2021; 12:2186-2200. [PMID: 34468270 PMCID: PMC8425704 DOI: 10.1080/21505594.2021.1958057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Aspergillus fumigatus is the leading cause of life-threatening invasive mold infections in immunocompromised individuals. This ubiquitous saprophyte possesses several natural attributes allowing it to evade the immune system, including the ability to withstand high toxic Cu concentrations within the phagosomes of macrophages and neutrophils. We previously established that at high levels, Cu binds and activates the A. fumigatus transcription factor AceA, which upregulates the expression of the Cu exporter CrpA to expel excess Cu. Deletion of aceA or crpA result in extreme Cu sensitivity and attenuated virulence. To identify other elements participating in resistance to Cu, we performed a genome-wide analysis of the transcriptome by RNAseq to analyze the AceA-dependent response of A. fumigatus to excess Cu. We deleted key genes whose transcription was strongly upregulated by high Cu, including those encoding homologs of the three Cu chaperones cox17, atx1 and ccs1. Detailed analysis of these genes indicates that in A. fumigatus, cox17 is an essential gene with a possible role in respiration, the atxA gene product participates in reductive iron uptake and ccsA encodes the Cu chaperone activating A. fumigatus Sod1. Interestingly, although the ccsA-null strain was extremely sensitive to high Cu and oxidative stress, it was not attenuated in virulence in a mouse model of invasive pulmonary aspergillosis. Our work provides (i) a detailed view of the genome-wide transcriptional response of A. fumigatus to excess Cu, (ii) identification of the AceA-dependent transcriptome and (iii) analysis of the roles of the three Cu chaperones cox17, atxA and ccsA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duaa Anabosi
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Zohar Meir
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Yana Shadkchan
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Mariana Handelman
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Ammar Abou-Kandil
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Annie Yap
- Institute for Molecular Biology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Daniel Urlings
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Morgan S Gold
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Sven Krappmann
- Microbiology Institute, Clinical Microbiology, Immunology and Hygiene University Hospital and Friedrich-Alexander-University (FAU) of Erlangen-Nürnberg, Erlangen, Germany
| | - Hubertus Haas
- Institute for Molecular Biology, Medical University Innsbruck, Austria
| | - Nir Osherov
- Department of Clinical Microbiology and Immunology, Sackler School of Medicine Ramat-Aviv, Tel-Aviv, Israel
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5
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Alamir OF, Oladele RO, Ibe C. Nutritional immunity: targeting fungal zinc homeostasis. Heliyon 2021; 7:e07805. [PMID: 34466697 PMCID: PMC8384899 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2021.e07805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 06/22/2021] [Accepted: 08/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Transition metals, such as Zn2+, are essential dietary constituents of all biological life, including mammalian hosts and the pathogens that infect them. Therefore, to thrive and cause infection, pathogens must successfully assimilate these elements from the host milieu. Consequently, mammalian immunity has evolved to actively restrict and/or pool metals to toxic concentrations in an effort to attenuate microbial pathogenicity - a process termed nutritional immunity. Despite host-induced Zn2+ nutritional immunity, pathogens such as Candida albicans, are still capable of causing disease and thus must be equipped with robust Zn2+ sensory, uptake and detoxification machinery. This review will discuss the strategies employed by mammalian hosts to limit Zn2+ during infection, and the subsequent fungal interventions that counteract Zn2+ nutritional immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Omran F Alamir
- Department of Natural Sciences, College of Health Sciences, The Public Authority for Applied Education and Training, Al Asimah, Kuwait
| | - Rita O Oladele
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Parasitology, College of Medicine, University of Lagos, Lagos State, Nigeria
| | - C Ibe
- Department of Microbiology, Abia State University, PMB 2000, Uturu, Abia State, Nigeria
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6
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The Copper Chaperone CcsA, Coupled with Superoxide Dismutase SodA, Mediates the Oxidative Stress Response in Aspergillus fumigatus. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:e0101321. [PMID: 34160279 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01013-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are important metalloenzymes that protect fungal pathogens against the toxic effects of reactive oxygen species (ROS) generated by host defense mechanisms during the infection process. The activation of Cu/Zn-SOD1 is found to be dependent on copper chaperone for SOD1 (Ccs1). However, the role of the Ccs1 ortholog in the human pathogen Aspergillus fumigatus and how these SODs coordinate to mediate oxidative stress response remain elusive. Here, we demonstrated that A. fumigatus CcsA, a Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ccs1 ortholog, is required for cells in response to oxidative response and the activation of Sod1. Deletion of ccsA resulted in increased ROS accumulation and enhanced sensitivity to oxidative stress due to the loss of SodA activity. Molecular characterization of CcsA revealed that the conserved CXC motif is required not only for the physical interaction with SodA but also for the oxidative stress adaption. Notably, addition of Mn2+ or overexpression of cytoplasmic Mn-SodC could rescue the defects of the ccsA or sodA deletion mutant, indicating the important role of Mn2+ and Mn-SodC in ROS detoxification; however, deletion of the CcsA-SodA complex could not affect A. fumigatus virulence. Collectively, our findings demonstrate that CcsA functions as a Cu/Zn-Sod1 chaperone that participates in the adaptation to oxidative stress in A. fumigatus and provide a better understanding of the CcsA-SodA complex-mediated oxidative stress response in filamentous fungi. IMPORTANCE Reactive oxygen species (ROS) produced by phagocytes have been reported to participate in the killing of fungal pathogens. Superoxide dismutases (SODs) are considered to be the first line of defense against superoxide anions. Characterizing the regulatory mechanisms of SOD activation is important for understanding how fungi adapt to oxidative stress in hosts. Our findings demonstrated that CcsA functions as a SodA chaperone in A. fumigatus and that the conserved CXC motif within CcsA is required for its interaction with SodA and the CcsA-SodA-mediated oxidative response. These data may provide new insights into how fungal pathogens adapt to oxidative stress via the CcsA-SodA complex.
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7
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Jakab Á, Emri T, Csillag K, Szabó A, Nagy F, Baranyai E, Sajtos Z, Géczi D, Antal K, Kovács R, Szabó K, Dombrádi V, Pócsi I. The Negative Effect of Protein Phosphatase Z1 Deletion on the Oxidative Stress Tolerance of Candida albicans Is Synergistic with Betamethasone Exposure. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:jof7070540. [PMID: 34356919 PMCID: PMC8305657 DOI: 10.3390/jof7070540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 07/02/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The glucocorticoid betamethasone (BM) has potent anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive effects; however, it increases the susceptibility of patients to superficial Candida infections. Previously we found that this disadvantageous side effect can be counteracted by menadione sodium bisulfite (MSB) induced oxidative stress treatment. The fungus specific protein phosphatase Z1 (CaPpz1) has a pivotal role in oxidative stress response of Candida albicans and was proposed as a potential antifungal drug target. The aim of this study was to investigate the combined effects of CaPPZ1 gene deletion and MSB treatment in BM pre-treated C. albicans cultures. We found that the combined treatment increased redox imbalance, enhanced the specific activities of antioxidant enzymes, and reduced the growth in cappz1 mutant (KO) strain. RNASeq data demonstrated that the presence of BM markedly elevated the number of differentially expressed genes in the MSB treated KO cultures. Accumulation of reactive oxygen species, increased iron content and fatty acid oxidation, as well as the inhibiting ergosterol biosynthesis and RNA metabolic processes explain, at least in part, the fungistatic effect caused by the combined stress exposure. We suggest that the synergism between MSB treatment and CaPpz1 inhibition could be considered in developing of a novel combinatorial antifungal strategy accompanying steroid therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ágnes Jakab
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (T.E.); (K.C.); (A.S.); (D.G.); (I.P.)
- Correspondence:
| | - Tamás Emri
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (T.E.); (K.C.); (A.S.); (D.G.); (I.P.)
| | - Kinga Csillag
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (T.E.); (K.C.); (A.S.); (D.G.); (I.P.)
| | - Anita Szabó
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (T.E.); (K.C.); (A.S.); (D.G.); (I.P.)
| | - Fruzsina Nagy
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (F.N.); (R.K.)
| | - Edina Baranyai
- Agilent Atomic Spectroscopy Partner Laboratory, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (E.B.); (Z.S.)
| | - Zsófi Sajtos
- Agilent Atomic Spectroscopy Partner Laboratory, Department of Inorganic and Analytical Chemistry, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (E.B.); (Z.S.)
| | - Dóra Géczi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (T.E.); (K.C.); (A.S.); (D.G.); (I.P.)
| | - Károly Antal
- Department of Zoology, Faculty of Sciences, Eszterházy Károly University, 3300 Eger, Hungary;
| | - Renátó Kovács
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (F.N.); (R.K.)
- Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Krisztina Szabó
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (K.S.); (V.D.)
| | - Viktor Dombrádi
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Medicine, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (K.S.); (V.D.)
| | - István Pócsi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Debrecen, 4032 Debrecen, Hungary; (T.E.); (K.C.); (A.S.); (D.G.); (I.P.)
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8
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Joaquim AR, Reginatto P, Lopes MS, Bazana LCG, Gionbelli MP, de Cesare MA, Kaminski TFA, Teixeira ML, Abegg MA, Fuentefria AM, de Andrade SF. New 8-hydroxyquinoline derivatives highlight the potential of this class for treatment of fungal infections. NEW J CHEM 2021. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj06188c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Compound 5h has interesting antifungal activity and a good toxicity profile and seems to act as an ion scavenger in fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angélica Rocha Joaquim
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752 – Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS, 90610-000, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Paula Reginatto
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Marcela Silva Lopes
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Luana Candice Genz Bazana
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Mariana Pies Gionbelli
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752 – Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS, 90610-000, Brazil
| | - Maycon Antonio de Cesare
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752 – Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS, 90610-000, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | | | - Mário Lettieri Teixeira
- Laboratório de Farmacologia, Instituto Federal Catarinense, Campus Concórdia, Concórdia, SC, Brazil
| | - Maxwel Adriano Abegg
- Instituto de Ciências Exatas e Tecnologia, Universidade Federal do Amazonas, Itacoatiara, AM, Brazil
| | - Alexandre Meneghello Fuentefria
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
| | - Saulo Fernandes de Andrade
- Pharmaceutical Synthesis Group (PHARSG), Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Av. Ipiranga, 2752 – Azenha, Porto Alegre, RS, 90610-000, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Ciências Farmacêuticas, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
- Programa de Pós-graduação em Microbiologia Agrícola e do Ambiente, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, RS, Brazil
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9
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Ding Y, Mei J, Chai Y, Yang W, Mao Y, Yan B, Yu Y, Disi JO, Rana K, Li J, Qian W. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum utilizes host-derived copper for ROS detoxification and infection. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008919. [PMID: 33002079 PMCID: PMC7553324 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2020] [Revised: 10/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Necrotrophic plant pathogen induces host reactive oxygen species (ROS) production, which leads to necrosis in the host, allowing the pathogen to absorb nutrients from the dead tissues. Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a typical necrotrophic pathogen that causes Sclerotinia stem rot in more than 400 species, resulting in serious economic losses. Here, we found that three S. sclerotiorum genes involved in copper ion import/transport, SsCTR1, SsCCS and SsATX1, were significantly up-regulated during infection of Brassica oleracea. Function analysis revealed that these genes involved in fungal ROS detoxification and virulence. On the host side, four genes putatively involved in copper ion homeostasis, BolCCS, BolCCH, BolMT2A and BolDRT112, were significantly down-regulated in susceptible B. oleracea, but stably expressed in resistant B. oleracea during infection. Their homologs were found to promote resistance to S. sclerotiorum and increase antioxidant activity in Arabidopsis thaliana. Furthermore, copper concentration analysis indicated that copper flow from healthy area into the necrotic area during infection. A model was proposed that S. sclerotiorum utilizes host copper to detoxify ROS in its cells, whereas the resistant hosts may restrict the supply of essential copper nutrients to S. sclerotiorum by maintaining copper ion homeostasis during infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yijuan Ding
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Jiaqin Mei
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Yaru Chai
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Key Laboratory of Plant Molecular Physiology, Institute of Botany, Chinese Academy of Sciences, China
| | - Wenjing Yang
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Yi Mao
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Baoqin Yan
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Yang Yu
- College of Plant Protection, Southwest University, China
| | - Joseph Onwusemu Disi
- Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens, United States of America
| | - Kusum Rana
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Jiana Li
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
| | - Wei Qian
- College of Agronomy and Biotechnology, Southwest University, China
- Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Southwest University, China
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10
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Culbertson EM, Bruno VM, Cormack BP, Culotta VC. Expanded role of the Cu-sensing transcription factor Mac1p in Candida albicans. Mol Microbiol 2020; 114:1006-1018. [PMID: 32808698 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2020] [Revised: 08/13/2020] [Accepted: 08/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
As part of the innate immune response, the host withholds metal micronutrients such as Cu from invading pathogens, and microbes respond through metal starvation stress responses. With the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans, the Cu-sensing transcription factor Mac1p governs the cellular response to Cu starvation by controlling Cu import. Mac1p additionally controls reactive oxygen species (ROS) homeostasis by repressing a Cu-containing superoxide dismutase (SOD1) and inducing Mn-containing SOD3 as a non-Cu alternative. We show here that C. albicans Mac1p is essential for virulence in a mouse model for disseminated candidiasis and that the cellular functions of Mac1p extend beyond Cu uptake and ROS homeostasis. Specifically, mac1∆/∆ mutants are profoundly deficient in mitochondrial respiration and Fe accumulation, both Cu-dependent processes. Surprisingly, these deficiencies are not simply the product of impaired Cu uptake; rather mac1∆/∆ mutants appear defective in Cu allocation. The respiratory defect of mac1∆/∆ mutants was greatly improved by a sod1∆/∆ mutation, demonstrating a role for SOD1 repression by Mac1p in preserving respiration. Mac1p downregulates the major Cu consumer SOD1 to spare Cu for respiration that is essential for virulence of this fungal pathogen. The implications for such Cu homeostasis control in other pathogenic fungi are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward M Culbertson
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Vincent M Bruno
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Brendan P Cormack
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Valeria C Culotta
- The Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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11
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Prasath KG, Tharani H, Kumar MS, Pandian SK. Palmitic Acid Inhibits the Virulence Factors of Candida tropicalis: Biofilms, Cell Surface Hydrophobicity, Ergosterol Biosynthesis, and Enzymatic Activity. Front Microbiol 2020; 11:864. [PMID: 32457728 PMCID: PMC7226919 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.00864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2020] [Accepted: 04/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Biofilm is the fortitude of Candida species infections which eventually causes candidiasis in human. C. tropicalis is one of the predominant Candida species commonly found in systemic infections, next to C. albicans. In Candida species, biofilm maturity initiates irreversible surface attachment of cells and barricades the penetration of conventional antifungals. Hence, the current study investigated the antifungal and antivirulence potency of palmitic acid (PA) against C. tropicalis mature biofilm and its associated virulence factors. In vitro results revealed an effective inhibition of biofilm in PA-treated C. tropicalis, compared to C. albicans and C. glabrata. Also, PA reduced C. tropicalis mature biofilm at various time points. Further, PA treatment triggered apoptosis in C. tropicalis through ROS mediated mitochondrial dysfunction as demonstrated by confocal microscopic observation of PI, DAPI and DCFDA staining. PA regulated other virulence factors such as cell surface hydrophobicity, ergosterol biosynthesis, protease and lipase after 48 h of treatment. Downregulation of ERG11 (Lanosterol 14-alpha demethylase) was contributed to the reduction of ergosterol in PA-treated C. tropicalis. However, enhanced hyphal growth was observed in PA-treated C. tropicalis through upregulation HWP1 (Hyphal wall protein) and EFG1 (Enhanced filamentous growth). This study highlighted the antibiofilm and antivirulence potency of PA against C. tropicalis. Hence, PA could be applied synergistically with other antifungal agents to increase the efficacy for regulating NCAC infections.
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12
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Schatzman SS, Peterson RL, Teka M, He B, Cabelli DE, Cormack BP, Culotta VC. Copper-only superoxide dismutase enzymes and iron starvation stress in Candida fungal pathogens. J Biol Chem 2019; 295:570-583. [PMID: 31806705 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra119.011084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2019] [Revised: 11/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper (Cu)-only superoxide dismutases (SOD) represent a newly characterized class of extracellular SODs important for virulence of several fungal pathogens. Previous studies of the Cu-only enzyme SOD5 from the opportunistic fungal pathogen Candida albicans have revealed that the active-site structure and Cu binding of SOD5 strongly deviate from those of Cu/Zn-SODs in its animal hosts, making Cu-only SODs a possible target for future antifungal drug design. C. albicans also expresses a Cu-only SOD4 that is highly similar in sequence to SOD5, but is poorly characterized. Here, we compared the biochemical, biophysical, and cell biological properties of C. albicans SOD4 and SOD5. Analyzing the recombinant proteins, we found that, similar to SOD5, Cu-only SOD4 can react with superoxide at rates approaching diffusion limits. Both SODs were monomeric and they exhibited similar binding affinities for their Cu cofactor. In C. albicans cultures, SOD4 and SOD5 were predominantly cell wall proteins. Despite these similarities, the SOD4 and SOD5 genes strongly differed in transcriptional regulation. SOD5 was predominantly induced during hyphal morphogenesis, together with a fungal burst in reactive oxygen species. Conversely, SOD4 expression was specifically up-regulated by iron (Fe) starvation and controlled by the Fe-responsive transcription factor SEF1. Interestingly, Candida tropicalis and the emerging fungal pathogen Candida auris contain a single SOD5-like SOD rather than a pair, and in both fungi, this SOD was induced by Fe starvation. This unexpected link between Fe homeostasis and extracellular Cu-SODs may help many fungi adapt to Fe-limited conditions of their hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabrina S Schatzman
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Ryan L Peterson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Mieraf Teka
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Bixi He
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Diane E Cabelli
- Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratories, Upton, New York 11973
| | - Brendan P Cormack
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland 21205
| | - Valeria C Culotta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland 21205.
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13
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Prasath KG, Sethupathy S, Pandian SK. Proteomic analysis uncovers the modulation of ergosterol, sphingolipid and oxidative stress pathway by myristic acid impeding biofilm and virulence in Candida albicans. J Proteomics 2019; 208:103503. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2019.103503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2019] [Revised: 08/10/2019] [Accepted: 08/22/2019] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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14
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Douglas LM, Konopka JB. Plasma membrane architecture protects Candida albicans from killing by copper. PLoS Genet 2019; 15:e1007911. [PMID: 30633741 PMCID: PMC6345494 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1007911] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2018] [Revised: 01/24/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The ability to resist copper toxicity is important for microbial pathogens to survive attack by innate immune cells. A sur7Δ mutant of the fungal pathogen Candida albicans exhibits decreased virulence that correlates with increased sensitivity to copper, as well as defects in other stress responses and morphogenesis. Previous studies indicated that copper kills sur7Δ cells by a mechanism distinct from the known resistance pathways involving the Crp1 copper exporter or the Cup1 metallothionein. Since Sur7 resides in punctate plasma membrane domains known as MCC/eisosomes, we examined overexpression of SUR7 and found that it rescued the copper sensitivity of a mutant that fails to form MCC/eisosomes (pil1Δ lsp1Δ), indicating that these domains act to facilitate Sur7 function. Genetic screening identified new copper-sensitive mutants, the strongest of which were similar to sur7Δ in having altered plasma membranes due to defects in membrane trafficking, cortical actin, and morphogenesis (rvs161Δ, rvs167Δ, and arp2Δ arp3Δ). Consistent with the mutants having altered plasma membrane organization, they were all more readily permeabilized by copper, which is known to bind phosphatidylserine and phosphatidylethanolamine and cause membrane damage. Although these phospholipids are normally localized to the intracellular leaflet of the plasma membrane, their exposure on the surface of the copper-sensitive mutants was indicated by increased susceptibility to membrane damaging agents that bind to these phospholipids. Increased copper sensitivity was also detected for a drs2Δ mutant, which lacks a phospholipid flippase that is involved in maintaining phospholipid asymmetry. Copper binds phosphatidylserine with very high affinity, and deleting CHO1 to prevent phosphatidylserine synthesis rescued the copper sensitivity of sur7Δ cells, confirming a major role for phosphatidylserine in copper sensitivity. These results highlight how proper plasma membrane architecture protects fungal pathogens from copper and attack by the immune system, thereby opening up new avenues for therapeutic intervention. The transition metal copper is used by the innate immune system to attack microbial pathogens. To better understand how the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans resists this type of stress, we screened for mutants that were more susceptible to killing by copper. Interestingly, we identified a new class of copper-sensitive mutants whose plasma membranes are more readily permeabilized by copper. The common characteristic of these new copper-sensitive mutants is that they have an altered cell surface, which weakened their resistance to copper. These results help to explain the toxic effects of copper and suggest novel therapeutic strategies for fungal infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lois M. Douglas
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
| | - James B. Konopka
- Department of Molecular Genetics and Microbiology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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15
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The Role of Copper Homeostasis at the Host-Pathogen Axis: From Bacteria to Fungi. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20010175. [PMID: 30621285 PMCID: PMC6337107 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20010175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Revised: 12/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Copper is an essential trace element participating in many vital biological processes, however it becomes a toxic agent when in excess. Thus, precise and tight regulation of copper homeostasis processes, including transport, delivery, storage, detoxification, and efflux machineries, is important, ensuring that only the amount needed to sustain basic biological functions and simultaneously prevent copper toxicity in the cell is maintained. Numerous exciting studies have revealed that copper plays an indispensable role at the microbial pathogen-host axis for entities ranging from pathogenic bacteria to deadly fungal species. Analyses of copper homeostases in bacteria and fungi extensively demonstrate that copper is utilized by the host immune system as an anti-microbial agent. The expression of copper efflux and detoxification from microbial pathogens is induced to counteract the host's copper bombardment, which in turn disrupts these machineries, resulting in the attenuation of microbial survival in host tissue. We hereby review the latest work in copper homeostases in pathogenic bacteria and fungi and focus on the maintenance of a copper balance at the pathogen-host interaction axis.
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16
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Intersection of phosphate transport, oxidative stress and TOR signalling in Candida albicans virulence. PLoS Pathog 2018; 14:e1007076. [PMID: 30059535 PMCID: PMC6085062 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1007076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2018] [Revised: 08/09/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Phosphate is an essential macronutrient required for cell growth and division. Pho84 is the major high-affinity cell-surface phosphate importer of Saccharomyces cerevisiae and a crucial element in the phosphate homeostatic system of this model yeast. We found that loss of Candida albicans Pho84 attenuated virulence in Drosophila and murine oropharyngeal and disseminated models of invasive infection, and conferred hypersensitivity to neutrophil killing. Susceptibility of cells lacking Pho84 to neutrophil attack depended on reactive oxygen species (ROS): pho84-/- cells were no more susceptible than wild type C. albicans to neutrophils from a patient with chronic granulomatous disease, or to those whose oxidative burst was pharmacologically inhibited or neutralized. pho84-/- mutants hyperactivated oxidative stress signalling. They accumulated intracellular ROS in the absence of extrinsic oxidative stress, in high as well as low ambient phosphate conditions. ROS accumulation correlated with diminished levels of the unique superoxide dismutase Sod3 in pho84-/- cells, while SOD3 overexpression from a conditional promoter substantially restored these cells’ oxidative stress resistance in vitro. Repression of SOD3 expression sharply increased their oxidative stress hypersensitivity. Neither of these oxidative stress management effects of manipulating SOD3 transcription was observed in PHO84 wild type cells. Sod3 levels were not the only factor driving oxidative stress effects on pho84-/- cells, though, because overexpressing SOD3 did not ameliorate these cells’ hypersensitivity to neutrophil killing ex vivo, indicating Pho84 has further roles in oxidative stress resistance and virulence. Measurement of cellular metal concentrations demonstrated that diminished Sod3 expression was not due to decreased import of its metal cofactor manganese, as predicted from the function of S. cerevisiae Pho84 as a low-affinity manganese transporter. Instead of a role of Pho84 in metal transport, we found its role in TORC1 activation to impact oxidative stress management: overexpression of the TORC1-activating GTPase Gtr1 relieved the Sod3 deficit and ROS excess in pho84-/- null mutant cells, though it did not suppress their hypersensitivity to neutrophil killing or hyphal growth defect. Pharmacologic inhibition of Pho84 by small molecules including the FDA-approved drug foscarnet also induced ROS accumulation. Inhibiting Pho84 could hence support host defenses by sensitizing C. albicans to oxidative stress. Candida albicans is the species most often isolated from patients with invasive fungal disease, and is also a common colonizer of healthy people. It is well equipped to compete for nutrients with bacteria co-inhabiting human gastrointestinal mucous membranes, since it possesses multiple transporters to internalize important nutrients like sugars, nitrogen sources, and phosphate. During infection, the fungus needs to withstand human defense cells that attack it with noxious chemicals, among which reactive oxygen species (ROS) are critical. We found that a high-affinity phosphate transporter, Pho84, is required for C. albicans’ ability to successfully invade animal hosts and to eliminate ROS. Levels of a fungal enzyme that breaks down ROS, Sod3, were decreased in cells lacking Pho84. A connection between this phosphate transporter and the ROS-detoxifying enzyme was identified in the Target of Rapamycin (TOR) pathway, to which Pho84 is known to provide activating signals when phosphate is abundant. Small molecules that block Pho84 activity impair the ability of C. albicans to detoxify ROS. Since humans manage phosphate differently than fungi and have no Pho84 homolog, a drug that inhibits Pho84 could disable the defense of the fungus against the host.
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17
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Gerwien F, Skrahina V, Kasper L, Hube B, Brunke S. Metals in fungal virulence. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2018; 42:4562650. [PMID: 29069482 PMCID: PMC5812535 DOI: 10.1093/femsre/fux050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Metals are essential for life, and they play a central role in the struggle between infecting microbes and their hosts. In fact, an important aspect of microbial pathogenesis is the 'nutritional immunity', in which metals are actively restricted (or, in an extended definition of the term, locally enriched) by the host to hinder microbial growth and virulence. Consequently, fungi have evolved often complex regulatory networks, uptake and detoxification systems for essential metals such as iron, zinc, copper, nickel and manganese. These systems often differ fundamentally from their bacterial counterparts, but even within the fungal pathogens we can find common and unique solutions to maintain metal homeostasis. Thus, we here compare the common and species-specific mechanisms used for different metals among different fungal species-focusing on important human pathogens such as Candida albicans, Aspergillus fumigatus or Cryptococcus neoformans, but also looking at model fungi such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae or A. nidulans as well-studied examples for the underlying principles. These direct comparisons of our current knowledge reveal that we have a good understanding how model fungal pathogens take up iron or zinc, but that much is still to learn about other metals and specific adaptations of individual species-not the least to exploit this knowledge for new antifungal strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Gerwien
- Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology– Hans Knoell Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Volha Skrahina
- Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology– Hans Knoell Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Lydia Kasper
- Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology– Hans Knoell Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology– Hans Knoell Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany
| | - Sascha Brunke
- Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Leibniz Institute for Natural Product Research and Infection Biology– Hans Knoell Institute, 07745 Jena, Germany
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18
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Abstract
Fungi must meet four criteria to infect humans: growth at human body temperatures, circumvention or penetration of surface barriers, lysis and absorption of tissue, and resistance to immune defenses, including elevated body temperatures. Morphogenesis between small round, detachable cells and long, connected cells is the mechanism by which fungi solve problems of locomotion around or through host barriers. Secretion of lytic enzymes, and uptake systems for the released nutrients, are necessary if a fungus is to nutritionally utilize human tissue. Last, the potent human immune system evolved in the interaction with potential fungal pathogens, so few fungi meet all four conditions for a healthy human host. Paradoxically, the advances of modern medicine have made millions of people newly susceptible to fungal infections by disrupting immune defenses. This article explores how different members of four fungal phyla use different strategies to fulfill the four criteria to infect humans: the Entomophthorales, the Mucorales, the Ascomycota, and the Basidiomycota. Unique traits confer human pathogenic potential on various important members of these phyla: pathogenic Onygenales comprising thermal dimorphs such as Histoplasma and Coccidioides; the Cryptococcus spp. that infect immunocompromised as well as healthy humans; and important pathogens of immunocompromised patients-Candida, Pneumocystis, and Aspergillus spp. Also discussed are agents of neglected tropical diseases important in global health such as mycetoma and paracoccidiomycosis and common pathogens rarely implicated in serious illness such as dermatophytes. Commensalism is considered, as well as parasitism, in shaping genomes and physiological systems of hosts and fungi during evolution.
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19
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Broxton CN, He B, Bruno VM, Culotta VC. A role for Candida albicans superoxide dismutase enzymes in glucose signaling. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2017; 495:814-820. [PMID: 29154829 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2017.11.084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2017] [Accepted: 11/12/2017] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
The Saccharomyces cerevisiae and Candida albicans yeasts have evolved to differentially use glucose for fermentation versus respiration. S. cerevisiae is Crabtree positive, where glucose represses respiration and promotes fermentation, while the opportunistic fungal pathogen C. albicans is Crabtree negative and does not repress respiration with glucose. We have previously shown that glucose control in S. cerevisiae involves the antioxidant enzyme Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1), where H2O2 generated by SOD1 stabilizes the casein kinase YCK1 for glucose sensing. We now demonstrate that C. albicans SODs also participate in glucose regulation. C. albicans expresses two cytosolic SODs, Cu/Zn SOD1 and Mn containing SOD3, and both complemented a S. cerevisiae sod1Δ mutant in stabilizing YCK1. Moreover, in C. albicans cells, both SODs functioned to repress glucose transporter genes in response to glucose. However, the action of SODs in glucose control has diverged in the two yeasts. In S. cerevisiae, SOD1 specifically functions in the glucose sensing pathway involving YCK1 and the RGT1 repressor, but the analogous YCK/RGT1 pathway in C. albicans shows no control by SOD enzymes. Instead C. albicans SODs work in the glucose repression pathway involving the MIG1 transcriptional repressor. In C. albicans, the SODs repress glucose uptake, while in S. cerevisiae, SOD1 activates glucose uptake, in accordance with the divergent modes for glucose utilization in these two distantly related yeasts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chynna N Broxton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Bixi He
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Vincent M Bruno
- Department Microbiology and Immunology, Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 801 W. Baltimore St, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA
| | - Valeria C Culotta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, 615 N. Wolfe Street, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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20
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Chakravarti A, Camp K, McNabb DS, Pinto I. The Iron-Dependent Regulation of the Candida albicans Oxidative Stress Response by the CCAAT-Binding Factor. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0170649. [PMID: 28122000 PMCID: PMC5266298 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0170649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2016] [Accepted: 01/09/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Candida albicans is the most frequently encountered fungal pathogen in humans, capable of causing mucocutaneous and systemic infections in immunocompromised individuals. C. albicans virulence is influenced by multiple factors. Importantly, iron acquisition and avoidance of the immune oxidative burst are two critical barriers for survival in the host. Prior studies using whole genome microarray expression data indicated that the CCAAT-binding factor is involved in the regulation of iron uptake/utilization and the oxidative stress response. This study examines directly the role of the CCAAT-binding factor in regulating the expression of oxidative stress genes in response to iron availability. The CCAAT-binding factor is a heterooligomeric transcription factor previously shown to regulate genes involved in respiration and iron uptake/utilization in C. albicans. Since these pathways directly influence the level of free radicals, it seemed plausible the CCAAT-binding factor regulates genes necessary for the oxidative stress response. In this study, we show the CCAAT-binding factor is involved in regulating some oxidative stress genes in response to iron availability, including CAT1, SOD4, GRX5, and TRX1. We also show that CAT1 expression and catalase activity correlate with the survival of C. albicans to oxidative stress, providing a connection between iron obtainability and the oxidative stress response. We further explore the role of the various CCAAT-binding factor subunits in the formation of distinct protein complexes that modulate the transcription of CAT1 in response to iron. We find that Hap31 and Hap32 can compensate for each other in the formation of an active transcriptional complex; however, they play distinct roles in the oxidative stress response during iron limitation. Moreover, Hap43 was found to be solely responsible for the repression observed under iron deprivation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ananya Chakravarti
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Kyle Camp
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - David S. McNabb
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
| | - Inés Pinto
- Department of Biological Sciences, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
- Cell and Molecular Biology Program, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Broxton CN, Culotta VC. An Adaptation to Low Copper in Candida albicans Involving SOD Enzymes and the Alternative Oxidase. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0168400. [PMID: 28033429 PMCID: PMC5198983 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0168400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2016] [Accepted: 11/30/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In eukaryotes, the Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase (SOD1) is a major cytosolic cuproprotein with a small fraction residing in the mitochondrial intermembrane space (IMS) to protect against respiratory superoxide. Curiously, the opportunistic human fungal pathogen Candida albicans is predicted to express two cytosolic SODs including Cu/Zn containing SOD1 and manganese containing SOD3. As part of a copper starvation response, C. albicans represses SOD1 and induces the non-copper alternative SOD3. While both SOD1 and SOD3 are predicted to exist in the same cytosolic compartment, their potential role in mitochondrial oxidative stress had yet to be investigated. We show here that under copper replete conditions, a fraction of the Cu/Zn containing SOD1 localizes to the mitochondrial IMS to guard against mitochondrial superoxide. However in copper starved cells, localization of the manganese containing SOD3 is restricted to the cytosol leaving the mitochondrial IMS devoid of SOD. We observe that during copper starvation, an alternative oxidase (AOX) form of respiration is induced that is not coupled to ATP synthesis but maintains mitochondrial superoxide at low levels even in the absence of IMS SOD. Surprisingly, the copper-dependent cytochrome c oxidase (COX) form of respiration remains high with copper starvation. We provide evidence that repression of SOD1 during copper limitation serves to spare copper for COX and maintain COX respiration. Overall, the complex copper starvation response of C. albicans involving SOD1, SOD3 and AOX minimizes mitochondrial oxidative damage whilst maximizing COX respiration essential for fungal pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chynna N. Broxton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
| | - Valeria C. Culotta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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22
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Ikeh MAC, Kastora SL, Day AM, Herrero-de-Dios CM, Tarrant E, Waldron KJ, Banks AP, Bain JM, Lydall D, Veal EA, MacCallum DM, Erwig LP, Brown AJP, Quinn J. Pho4 mediates phosphate acquisition in Candida albicans and is vital for stress resistance and metal homeostasis. Mol Biol Cell 2016; 27:2784-801. [PMID: 27385340 PMCID: PMC5007097 DOI: 10.1091/mbc.e16-05-0266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
This study provides the first evidence that the phosphate-responsive transcription factor Pho4 is vital for survival of Candida albicans to diverse and physiologically relevant stresses. Pho4 is important for C. albicans pathogenesis, and thus these findings illustrate how metabolic adaptation promotes C. albicans survival in the host. During interactions with its mammalian host, the pathogenic yeast Candida albicans is exposed to a range of stresses such as superoxide radicals and cationic fluxes. Unexpectedly, a nonbiased screen of transcription factor deletion mutants revealed that the phosphate-responsive transcription factor Pho4 is vital for the resistance of C. albicans to these diverse stresses. RNA-Seq analysis indicated that Pho4 does not induce stress-protective genes directly. Instead, we show that loss of Pho4 affects metal cation toxicity, accumulation, and bioavailability. We demonstrate that pho4Δ cells are sensitive to metal and nonmetal cations and that Pho4-mediated polyphosphate synthesis mediates manganese resistance. Significantly, we show that Pho4 is important for mediating copper bioavailability to support the activity of the copper/zinc superoxide dismutase Sod1 and that loss of Sod1 activity contributes to the superoxide sensitivity of pho4Δ cells. Consistent with the key role of fungal stress responses in countering host phagocytic defenses, we also report that C. albicans pho4Δ cells are acutely sensitive to macrophage-mediated killing and display attenuated virulence in animal infection models. The novel connections between phosphate metabolism, metal homeostasis, and superoxide stress resistance presented in this study highlight the importance of metabolic adaptation in promoting C. albicans survival in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mélanie A C Ikeh
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Stavroula L Kastora
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Alison M Day
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | | | - Emma Tarrant
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin J Waldron
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - A Peter Banks
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Judith M Bain
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - David Lydall
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Elizabeth A Veal
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
| | - Donna M MacCallum
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Lars P Erwig
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Alistair J P Brown
- School of Medical Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, United Kingdom
| | - Janet Quinn
- Institute for Cell and Molecular Biosciences, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne NE2 4HH, United Kingdom
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23
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Significance of hyphae formation in virulence of Candida tropicalis and transcriptomic analysis of hyphal cells. Microbiol Res 2016; 192:65-72. [PMID: 27664724 DOI: 10.1016/j.micres.2016.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2016] [Revised: 06/02/2016] [Accepted: 06/04/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Recently, the proportion of Candida tropicalis in clinical isolates has significantly increased. Some C. tropicalis strains colonize the skin or mucosal surfaces as commensals; others trigger invasive infection. To date, the pathogenicity of C. tropicalis has not been thoroughly researched. This study reports several virulence factors, including biofilm and hyphae formation, proteinase, phospholipase, lipase and hemolytic activity, in 52 clinical isolates of C. tropicalis collected from five hospitals in four provinces of China. Some C. tropicalis tended to produce more hyphae than others in the same circumstance. Six C. tropicalis strains with different morphologies were injected into mice via the tail vein, and the survival proportions and fungal burdens of the strains were evaluated. Hyphal production by C. tropicalis was associated with stronger virulence. RNA sequencing revealed that C. tropicalis with more hyphae up-regulated several genes involved in morphological differentiation and oxidative response, including IF2, Atx1, and Sod2. It appears that hyphal formation plays a vital role in the pathogenicity of C. tropicalis, and interacts with the oxidative stress response to strengthen the organism's virulence.
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Zhang X, Dong J, Liu H, Wang J, Qi Y, Liang Z. Transcriptome Sequencing in Response to Salicylic Acid in Salvia miltiorrhiza. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147849. [PMID: 26808150 PMCID: PMC4726470 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 01/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Salvia miltiorrhiza is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine, whose quality and yield are often affected by diseases and environmental stresses during its growing season. Salicylic acid (SA) plays a significant role in plants responding to biotic and abiotic stresses, but the involved regulatory factors and their signaling mechanisms are largely unknown. In order to identify the genes involved in SA signaling, the RNA sequencing (RNA-seq) strategy was employed to evaluate the transcriptional profiles in S. miltiorrhiza cell cultures. A total of 50,778 unigenes were assembled, in which 5,316 unigenes were differentially expressed among 0-, 2-, and 8-h SA induction. The up-regulated genes were mainly involved in stimulus response and multi-organism process. A core set of candidate novel genes coding SA signaling component proteins was identified. Many transcription factors (e.g., WRKY, bHLH and GRAS) and genes involved in hormone signal transduction were differentially expressed in response to SA induction. Detailed analysis revealed that genes associated with defense signaling, such as antioxidant system genes, cytochrome P450s and ATP-binding cassette transporters, were significantly overexpressed, which can be used as genetic tools to investigate disease resistance. Our transcriptome analysis will help understand SA signaling and its mechanism of defense systems in S. miltiorrhiza.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoru Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Juane Dong
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (JD); (ZL)
| | - Hailong Liu
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Jiao Wang
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Yuexin Qi
- College of Life Sciences, Northwest Agriculture & Forestry University, Yangling, Shaanxi, People's Republic of China
| | - Zongsuo Liang
- College of Life Sciences, Zhejiang Sci-Tech University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
- * E-mail: (JD); (ZL)
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Affiliation(s)
- Chynna N. Broxton
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Valeria C. Culotta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Candida albicans adapts to host copper during infection by swapping metal cofactors for superoxide dismutase. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:E5336-42. [PMID: 26351691 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1513447112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 80] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Copper is both an essential nutrient and potentially toxic metal, and during infection the host can exploit Cu in the control of pathogen growth. Here we describe a clever adaptation to Cu taken by the human fungal pathogen Candida albicans. In laboratory cultures with abundant Cu, C. albicans expresses a Cu-requiring form of superoxide dismutase (Sod1) in the cytosol; but when Cu levels decline, cells switch to an alternative Mn-requiring Sod3. This toggling between Cu- and Mn-SODs is controlled by the Cu-sensing regulator Mac1 and ensures that C. albicans maintains constant SOD activity for cytosolic antioxidant protection despite fluctuating Cu. This response to Cu is initiated during C. albicans invasion of the host where the yeast is exposed to wide variations in Cu. In a murine model of disseminated candidiasis, serum Cu was seen to progressively rise over the course of infection, but this heightened Cu response was not mirrored in host tissue. The kidney that serves as the major site of fungal infection showed an initial rise in Cu, followed by a decline in the metal. C. albicans adjusted its cytosolic SODs accordingly and expressed Cu-Sod1 at early stages of infection, followed by induction of Mn-Sod3 and increases in expression of CTR1 for Cu uptake. Together, these studies demonstrate that fungal infection triggers marked fluctuations in host Cu and C. albicans readily adapts by modulating Cu uptake and by exchanging metal cofactors for antioxidant SODs.
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Feng XD, Zhang R, Wang XY, Zhang XX, Wang JX, Xing YH, Sun LX. Mimicing bromoperoxidase for copper complexes: Synthesis, structures and properties of Cu(II)–triazine pyrazolyl complex. Polyhedron 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.poly.2015.01.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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Abstract
Only few Candida species, e.g., Candida albicans, Candida glabrata, Candida dubliniensis, and Candida parapsilosis, are successful colonizers of a human host. Under certain circumstances these species can cause infections ranging from superficial to life-threatening disseminated candidiasis. The success of C. albicans, the most prevalent and best studied Candida species, as both commensal and human pathogen depends on its genetic, biochemical, and morphological flexibility which facilitates adaptation to a wide range of host niches. In addition, formation of biofilms provides additional protection from adverse environmental conditions. Furthermore, in many host niches Candida cells coexist with members of the human microbiome. The resulting fungal-bacterial interactions have a major influence on the success of C. albicans as commensal and also influence disease development and outcome. In this chapter, we review the current knowledge of important survival strategies of Candida spp., focusing on fundamental fitness and virulence traits of C. albicans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Polke
- Research Group Microbial Immunology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany; Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany
| | - Bernhard Hube
- Department Microbial Pathogenicity Mechanisms, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany; Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany; Center for Sepsis Control and Care, Jena University Hospital, Jena, Germany
| | - Ilse D Jacobsen
- Research Group Microbial Immunology, Hans-Knoell-Institute, Jena, Germany; Friedrich-Schiller-University, Jena, Germany
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da Silva RS, de Lima RG, de Paula Machado S. Design, Reactivity, and Biological Activity of Ruthenium Nitrosyl Complexes. ADVANCES IN INORGANIC CHEMISTRY 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adioch.2014.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
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Gleason JE, Galaleldeen A, Peterson RL, Taylor AB, Holloway SP, Waninger-Saroni J, Cormack BP, Cabelli DE, Hart PJ, Culotta VC. Candida albicans SOD5 represents the prototype of an unprecedented class of Cu-only superoxide dismutases required for pathogen defense. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2014; 111:5866-71. [PMID: 24711423 PMCID: PMC4000858 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1400137111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The human fungal pathogens Candida albicans and Histoplasma capsulatum have been reported to protect against the oxidative burst of host innate immune cells using a family of extracellular proteins with similarity to Cu/Zn superoxide dismutase 1 (SOD1). We report here that these molecules are widespread throughout fungi and deviate from canonical SOD1 at the primary, tertiary, and quaternary levels. The structure of C. albicans SOD5 reveals that although the β-barrel of Cu/Zn SODs is largely preserved, SOD5 is a monomeric copper protein that lacks a zinc-binding site and is missing the electrostatic loop element proposed to promote catalysis through superoxide guidance. Without an electrostatic loop, the copper site of SOD5 is not recessed and is readily accessible to bulk solvent. Despite these structural deviations, SOD5 has the capacity to disproportionate superoxide with kinetics that approach diffusion limits, similar to those of canonical SOD1. In cultures of C. albicans, SOD5 is secreted in a disulfide-oxidized form and apo-pools of secreted SOD5 can readily capture extracellular copper for rapid induction of enzyme activity. We suggest that the unusual attributes of SOD5-like fungal proteins, including the absence of zinc and an open active site that readily captures extracellular copper, make these SODs well suited to meet challenges in zinc and copper availability at the host-pathogen interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie E. Gleason
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Ahmad Galaleldeen
- Department of Biological Sciences, St. Mary’s University, San Antonio, TX 78228
| | - Ryan L. Peterson
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Alexander B. Taylor
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229
| | - Stephen P. Holloway
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229
| | | | - Brendan P. Cormack
- Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205
| | - Diane E. Cabelli
- Chemistry Department, Brookhaven National Laboratories, Upton, NY 11973-5000; and
| | - P. John Hart
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, TX 78229
- Department of Veterans Affairs, Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center, South Texas Veterans Health Care System, San Antonio, TX 78229
| | - Valeria Cizewski Culotta
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Johns Hopkins University Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD 21205
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