Multimodality PET/MRI agents targeted to activated macrophages

Nanomaterial Probes for Nuclear Imaging

Nuclear imaging is a powerful non-invasive imaging technique that is rapidly developing in medical theranostics. Nuclear imaging requires radiolabeling isotopes for non-invasive imaging through the radioactive decay emission of the radionuclide. Nuclear imaging probes, commonly known as radiotracers, are radioisotope-labeled small molecules. Nanomaterials have shown potential as nuclear imaging probes for theranostic applications. By modifying the surface of nanomaterials, multifunctional radio-labeled nanomaterials can be obtained for in vivo biodistribution and targeting in initial animal imaging studies. Various surface modification strategies have been developed, and targeting moieties have been attached to the nanomaterials to render biocompatibility and enable specific targeting. Through integration of complementary imaging probes to a single nanoparticulate, multimodal molecular imaging can be performed as images with high sensitivity, resolution, and specificity. In this review, nanomaterial nuclear imaging probes including inorganic nanomaterials such as quantum dots (QDs), organic nanomaterials such as liposomes, and exosomes are summarized. These new developments in nanomaterials are expected to introduce a paradigm shift in nuclear imaging, thereby creating new opportunities for theranostic medical imaging tools.

Targeted PET/MRI Imaging Super Probes: A Critical Review of Opportunities and Challenges

Recently, the demand for hybrid PET/MRI imaging techniques has increased significantly, which has sparked the investigation into new ways to simultaneously track multiple molecular targets and improve the localization and expression of biochemical markers. Multimodal imaging probes have recently emerged as powerful tools for improving the detection sensitivity and accuracy-both important factors in disease diagnosis and treatment; however, only a limited number of bimodal probes have been investigated in preclinical models. Herein, we briefly describe the strengths and limitations of PET and MRI modalities and highlight the need for the development of multimodal molecularly-targeted agents. We have tried to thoroughly summarize data on bimodal probes available on PubMed. Emphasis was placed on their design, safety profiles, pharmacokinetics, and clearance properties. The challenges in PET/MR probe development using a number of illustrative examples are also discussed, along with future research directions for these novel conjugates.

Chelator-Free/Chelator-Mediated Radiolabeling of Colloidally Stabilized Iron Oxide Nanoparticles for Biomedical Imaging

The aim of this study was to develop a bioimaging probe based on magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) surface functionalized with the copolymer (p(MAA-g-EGMA)), which were radiolabeled with the positron emitter Gallium-68. The synthesis of the hybrid MIONs was realized by hydrolytic condensation of a single ferrous precursor in the presence of the copolymer. The synthesized MagP MIONs displayed an average D_h of 87 nm, suitable for passive targeting of cancerous tissues through the enhanced permeation and retention (EPR) effect after intravenous administration, while their particularly high magnetic content ascribes strong magnetic properties to the colloids. Two different approaches were explored to develop MIONs radiolabeled with ⁶⁸Ga: the chelator-mediated approach, where the chelating agent NODAGA-NHS was conjugated onto the MIONs (MagP-NODAGA) to form a chelate complex with ⁶⁸Ga, and the chelator-free approach, where ⁶⁸Ga was directly incorporated onto the MIONs (MagP). Both groups of NPs showed highly efficient radiolabeling with ⁶⁸Ga, forming constructs which were stable with time, and in the presence of PBS and human serum. Ex vivo biodistribution studies of [⁶⁸Ga]Ga- MIONs showed high accumulation in the mononuclear phagocyte system (MPS) organs and satisfactory blood retention with time. In vivo PET imaging with [⁶⁸Ga]Ga-MagP MIONs was in accordance with the ex vivo biodistribution results. Finally, the MIONs showed low toxicity against 4T1 breast cancer cells. These detailed studies established that [⁶⁸Ga]Ga- MIONs exhibit potential for application as tracers for early cancer detection.

Towards Photoswitchable Contrast Agents for Absolute 3D Temperature MR Imaging

Temperature can be used as clinical marker for tissue metabolism and the detection of inflammations or tumors. The use of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) for monitoring physiological parameters like the temperature noninvasively is steadily increasing. In this study, we present a proof-of-principle study of MRI contrast agents (CA) for absolute and concentration independent temperature imaging. These CAs are based on azoimidazole substituted NiII porphyrins, which can undergo Light-Driven Coordination-Induced Spin State Switching (LD-CISSS) in solution. Monitoring the fast first order kinetic of back isomerisation (cis to trans) with standard clinical MR imaging sequences allows the determination of half-lives, that can be directly translated into absolute temperatures. Different temperature responsive CAs were successfully tested as prototypes in methanol-based gels and created temperature maps of gradient phantoms with high spatial resolution (0.13×0.13×1.1 mm) and low temperature errors (<0.22 °C). The method is sufficiently fast to record the temperature flow from a heat source as a film.

Development of Ga-68 labeled, biotinylated thiosemicarbazone dextran-coated iron oxide nanoparticles as multimodal PET/MRI probe

Bifunctional biotinylated thiosemicarbazone dextran-coated iron oxide Nanoparticles (NPs) were fabricated. Aldehyde groups of the oxidized dextran-coating layer were utilized to conjugate biotin as a tumor-targeting agent and thiosemicarbazide as a cation chelator on the surface of NPs. The final product was characterized for physicochemical and biological properties. It was compatible with red blood cells and did not change the blood coagulation time. It also showed a significantly enhanced affinity to biotin receptor-positive 4T1 cells compared to non-biotinylated ones. The r2 relaxivity coefficient value of the final product was 110.2 mM^-1 s^-1. Although biotinylated NPs were easily radiolabeled with Ga-68 at room temperature, the stable radiolabeled NPs were achieved at a higher temperature (60 °C). The radiolabeled NPs were majorly accumulated in the liver and spleen. However, about 5.4% ID/g of the radiolabeled NPs was accumulated within the 4T1 tumor site. Blocking studies was performed by the biotin molecules pre-injection showed uptake reduction in the 4T1 tumor (about 1.1% ID/g). The radiolabeled NPs could be used for the early detection of biotin receptor-positive tumors via PET-MRI.

PET-MR and SPECT-MR multimodality probes: Development and challenges

Positron emission tomography (PET)-magnetic resonance (MR) or single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)-MR hybrid imaging is being used in daily clinical practice. Due to its advantages over stand-alone PET, SPECT or MR imaging, in many areas such as oncology, the demand for hybrid imaging techniques is increasing dramatically. The use of multimodal imaging probes or biomarkers in a single molecule or particle to characterize the imaging subjects such as disease tissues certainly provides us with more accurate diagnosis and promotes therapeutic accuracy. A limited number of multimodal imaging probes are being used in preclinical and potential clinical investigations. The further development of multimodal PET-MR and SPECT-MR imaging probes includes several key elements: novel synthetic strategies, high sensitivity for accurate quantification and high anatomic resolution, favourable pharmacokinetic profile and target-specific binding of a new probe. This review thoroughly summarizes all recently available and noteworthy PET-MR and SPECT-MR multimodal imaging probes including small molecule bimodal probes, nano-sized bimodal probes, small molecular trimodal probes and nano-sized trimodal probes. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first comprehensive overview of all PET-MR and SPECT-MR multimodal probes. Since the development of multimodal PET-MR and SPECT-MR imaging probes is an emerging research field, a selection of 139 papers were recognized following the literature review. The challenges for designing multimodal probes have also been addressed in order to offer some future research directions for this novel interdisciplinary research field.

Multimodal nanoparticle imaging agents: design and applications

Molecular imaging, where the location of molecules or nanoscale constructs can be tracked in the body to report on disease or biochemical processes, is rapidly expanding to include combined modality or multimodal imaging. No single imaging technique can offer the optimum combination of properties (e.g. resolution, sensitivity, cost, availability). The rapid technological advances in hardware to scan patients, and software to process and fuse images, are pushing the boundaries of novel medical imaging approaches, and hand-in-hand with this is the requirement for advanced and specific multimodal imaging agents. These agents can be detected using a selection from radioisotope, magnetic resonance and optical imaging, among others. Nanoparticles offer great scope in this area as they lend themselves, via facile modification procedures, to act as multifunctional constructs. They have relevance as therapeutics and drug delivery agents that can be tracked by molecular imaging techniques with the particular development of applications in optically guided surgery and as radiosensitizers. There has been a huge amount of research work to produce nanoconstructs for imaging, and the parameters for successful clinical translation and validation of therapeutic applications are now becoming much better understood. It is an exciting time of progress for these agents as their potential is closer to being realized with translation into the clinic. The coming 5-10 years will be critical, as we will see if the predicted improvement in clinical outcomes becomes a reality. Some of the latest advances in combination modality agents are selected and the progression pathway to clinical trials analysed.This article is part of the themed issue 'Challenges for chemistry in molecular imaging'.

Dual nano-sized contrast agents in PET/MRI: a systematic review

Nowadays molecular imaging plays a vital role in achieving a successful targeted and personalized treatment. Hence, the approach of combining two or more medical imaging modalities was developed. The objective of this review is to systematically compare recent dual contrast agents in Positron Emission Tomography (PET)/Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) and in some cases Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)/MRI in terms of some their characteristics, such as tumor uptake, and reticuloendothelial system uptake (especially liver) and their relaxivity rates for early detection of primary cancer tumor. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic and integrated overview of this field. Two reviewers individually directed the systematic review search using PubMed, MEDLINE and Google Scholar. Two other reviewers directed quality assessment, using the criteria checklist from the CAMARADES (Collaborative Approach to Meta-Analysis and Review of Animal Data from Experimental Studies) tool, and differences were resolved by consensus. After reviewing all 49 studies, we concluded that a size range of 20-200 nm can be used for molecular imaging, although it is better to try to achieve as small a size as it is possible. Also, small nanoparticles with a hydrophilic coating and positive charge are suitable as a T₂ contrast agent. According to our selected data, the most successful dual probes in terms of high targeting were with an average size of 40 nm, PEGylated using peptides as a biomarker and radiolabeled with copper 64 and gallium 68. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Iron Oxide Nanoradiomaterials: Combining Nanoscale Properties with Radioisotopes for Enhanced Molecular Imaging

The combination of the size-dependent properties of nanomaterials with radioisotopes is emerging as a novel tool for molecular imaging. There are numerous examples already showing how the controlled synthesis of nanoparticles and the incorporation of a radioisotope in the nanostructure offer new features beyond the simple addition of different components. Among the different nanomaterials, iron oxide-based nanoparticles are the most used in imaging because of their versatility. In this review, we will study the different radioisotopes for biomedical imaging, how to incorporate them within the nanoparticles, and what applications they can be used for. Our focus is directed towards what is new in this field, what the nanoparticles can offer to the field of nuclear imaging, and the radioisotopes hybridized with nanomaterials for use in molecular imaging.

Magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as novel and efficient tools for atherosclerosis diagnosis

Cardiovascular complications derivate from atherosclerosis are the main cause of death in western world. An early detection of vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques is primordial for a better care of patients suffering the pathology. In this context nanotechnology has emerged as a promising tool to achieve this goal. Nanoparticles based on magnetic iron oxide (MNPs) have been extensively studied in cardiovascular diseases diagnosis, as well as in the treatment and diagnostic of other pathologies. The present review aims to describe and analyze the most current literature regarding to this topic, offering the level of detail required to reproduce the experimental tasks providing a critical input of the latest available reports. The current diagnostic features are presented and compared, highlighting their advantages and disadvantages. Information on novel technology intended to this purpose is also recompiled and in deep analyzed. Special emphasis is placed in magnetic nanotechnology, remarking the possibility to assess selective and multifunctional systems to the early detection of artherosclerotic pathologies. Finally, in view of the state of the art, the future perspectives about the trends on MNPs in artherosclerorsis diagnostic and treatment have also been addressed.

Radiolabeled inorganic nanoparticles for positron emission tomography imaging of cancer: an overview

Over the last few years, a plethora of radiolabeled inorganic nanoparticles have been developed and evaluated for their potential use as probes in positron emission tomography (PET) imaging of a wide variety of cancers. Inorganic nanoparticles represent an emerging paradigm in molecular imaging probe design, allowing the incorporation of various imaging modalities, targeting ligands, and therapeutic payloads into a single vector. A major challenge in this endeavor is to develop disease-specific nanoparticles with facile and robust radiolabeling strategies. Also, the radiolabeled nanoparticles should demonstrate adequate in vitro and in vivo stability, enhanced sensitivity for detection of disease at an early stage, optimized in vivo pharmacokinetics for reduced non-specific organ uptake, and improved targeting for achieving high efficacy. Owing to these challenges and other technological and regulatory issues, only a single radiolabeled nanoparticle formulation, namely "C-dots" (Cornell dots), has found its way into clinical trials thus far. This review describes the available options for radiolabeling of nanoparticles and summarizes the recent developments in PET imaging of cancer in preclinical and clinical settings using radiolabeled nanoparticles as probes. The key considerations toward clinical translation of these novel PET imaging probes are discussed, which will be beneficial for advancement of the field.

Radiolabeled theranostics: magnetic and gold nanoparticles

Introduction: Growing advances in nanotechnology have facilitated the applications of newly emerged nanomaterials in the field of biomedical/pharmaceutical sciences. Following this trend, the multifunctional nanoparticles (NPs) play a significant role in development of advanced drug delivery systems (DDSs) such as diapeutics/theranostics used for simultaneous diagnosis and therapy. Multifunctional radiolabeled NPs with capability of detecting, visualizing and destroying diseased cells with least side effects have been considered as an emerging filed in presentation of the best choice in solving the therapeutic problems. Functionalized magnetic and gold NPs (MNPs and GNPs, respectively) have produced the potential of nanoparticles as sensitive multifunctional probes for molecular imaging, photothermal therapy and drug delivery and targeting.

Methods: In this study, we review the most recent works on the improvement of various techniques for development of radiolabeled magnetic and gold nanoprobes, and discuss the methods for targeted imaging and therapies.

Results: The receptor-specific radiopharmaceuticals have been developed to localized radiotherapy in disease sites. Application of advanced multimodal imaging methods and related modality imaging agents labeled with various radioisotopes (e.g., ¹²⁵I, ¹¹¹In, ⁶⁴Cu, ⁶⁸Ga, ⁹⁹mTc) and MNPs/GNPs have significant effects on treatment and prognosis of cancer therapy. In addition, the surface modification with biocompatible polymer such as polyethylene glycol (PEG) have resulted in development of stealth NPs that can evade the opsonization and immune clearance. These long-circulating agents can be decorated with homing agents as well as radioisotopes for targeted imaging and therapy purposes.

Conclusion: The modified MNPs or GNPs have wide applications in concurrent diagnosis and therapy of various malignancies. Once armed with radioisotopes, these nanosystems (NSs) can be exploited for combined multimodality imaging with photothermal/photodynamic therapy while delivering the loaded drugs or genes to the targeted cells/tissues. These NSs will be a game changer in combating various cancers.

The evolution of gadolinium based contrast agents: from single-modality to multi-modality

Gadolinium-based contrast agents are extensively used as magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) contrast agents due to their outstanding signal enhancement and ease of chemical modification. However, it is increasingly recognized that information obtained from single modal molecular imaging cannot satisfy the higher requirements on the efficiency and accuracy for clinical diagnosis and medical research, due to its limitation and default rooted in single molecular imaging technique itself. To compensate for the deficiencies of single function magnetic resonance imaging contrast agents, the combination of multi-modality imaging has turned to be the research hotpot in recent years. This review presents an overview on the recent developments of the functionalization of gadolinium-based contrast agents, and their application in biomedicine applications.

Nanoparticle-based multimodal PET/MRI probes

The integration of PET and MRI modalities into a single hybrid imaging system has been demonstrated to synergistically compensate for the limitations of each modality, with the potential to enhance diagnostic accuracy and improve development of therapeutics. To take advantage of the progress of the hybrid PET/MRI hardware, nanoparticle-based probes are being developed for multimodal applications. In this paper, recent advances in the development of nanoparticle-based, multimodal PET/MRI probes are reviewed. Common MRI contrast agents, PET tracers and chelators and surface functionality that comprised PET/MRI nanoprobes reported in the last 10 years are summarized, followed by a description of the physical properties of these probes and their imaging applications.

Development of a complementary PET/MR dual-modal imaging probe for targeting prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)

We tried to develop a dual-modal PET/MR imaging probe using a straightforward one-pot method by encapsulation with specific amphiphiles. In this study, iron oxide (IO) nanoparticles were encapsulated with three amphiphiles containing PEG, DOTA and the prostate-specific membrane antigen (PSMA)-targeting ligand in aqueous medium. The diameter of the prepared nanoparticle DOTA-IO-GUL was 11.01±1.54nm. DOTA-IO-GUL was labeled with (68)Ga in high efficiency. The DOTA-IO-GUL showed a dose-dependent binding to LNCaP (PSMA positive) cells via a competitive binding study against (125)I-labeled MIP-1072 (PSMA-targeting agent). Additionally, PET and MR imaging results showed PSMA selective uptake by only 22Rv1 (PSMA positive) but not PC-3 (PSMA negative) in dual-tumor xenograft mouse model study. MR imaging showed high resolution, and PET imaging enabled quantification and confirmation of the specificity. In conclusion, we have successfully developed the specific PSMA-targeting IO nanoparticle, DOTA-IO-GUL, as a dual-modality probe for complementary PET/MR imaging.

FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR

The combination of using Positron Emission Tomography (PET) and computed tomography (CT) in clinical practice is now the norm. With advances in technology, the next step would be to develop combined PET and Magnetic Resonance (MR) dual-imaging. In this article, the authors described their positive study on the development of a dual-modal PET/MR imaging probe using a prostate cancer model.

Quantitative assessment of binding affinities for nanoparticles targeted to vulnerable plaque

Recent successes in targeted immune and cell-based therapies have driven new directions for pharmaceutical research. With the rise of these new therapies there is an unfilled need for companion diagnostics to assess patients' potential for therapeutic response. Targeted nanomaterials have been widely investigated to fill this niche; however, in contrast to small molecule or peptide-based targeted agents, binding affinities are not reported for nanomaterials, and to date there has been no standard, quantitative measure for the interaction of targeted nanoparticle agents with their targets. Without a standard measure, accurate comparisons between systems and optimization of targeting behavior are challenging. Here, we demonstrate a method for quantitative assessment of the binding affinity for targeted nanoparticles to cell surface receptors in living systems and apply it to optimize the development of a novel targeted nanoprobe for imaging vulnerable atherosclerotic plaques. In this work, we developed sulfated dextran-coated iron oxide nanoparticles with specific targeting to macrophages, a cell type whose density strongly correlates with plaque vulnerability. Detailed quantitative, in vitro characterizations of (111)In(3+) radiolabeled probes show high-affinity binding to the macrophage scavenger receptor A (SR-A). Cell uptake studies illustrate that higher surface sulfation levels result in much higher uptake efficiency by macrophages. We use a modified Scatchard analysis to quantitatively describe nanoparticle binding to targeted receptors. This characterization represents a potential new standard metric for targeted nanomaterials.

Targeted multimodal imaging modalities

Molecular imaging non-invasively visualizes and characterizes the biologic functions and mechanisms in living organisms at a molecular level. In recent years, advances in imaging instruments, imaging probes, assay methods, and quantification techniques have enabled more refined and reliable images for more accurate diagnoses. Multimodal imaging combines two or more imaging modalities into one system to produce details in clinical diagnostic imaging that are more precise than conventional imaging. Multimodal imaging offers complementary advantages: high spatial resolution, soft tissue contrast, and biological information on the molecular level with high sensitivity. However, combining all modalities into a single imaging probe involves problems yet to be solved due to the requirement of high dose contrast agents for a component of imaging modality with low sensitivity. The introduction of targeting moieties into the probes enhances the specific binding of targeted multimodal imaging modalities and selective accumulation of the imaging agents at a disease site to provide more accurate diagnoses. An extensive list of prior reports on the targeted multimodal imaging probes categorized by each modality is presented and discussed. In addition to accurate diagnosis, targeted multimodal imaging agents carrying therapeutic medications make it possible to visualize the theranostic effect and the progress of disease. This will facilitate the development of an imaging-guided therapy, which will widen the application of the targeted multimodal imaging field to experiments in vivo.

From PET/CT to PET/MRI: advances in instrumentation and clinical applications

Multimodality imaging of positron emission tomography/computed tomography (PET/CT) provides both metabolic information and the anatomic structure, which is significantly superior to either PET or CT alone and has greatly improved its clinical applications. Because of the higher soft-tissue contrast of magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and no extra ionizing radiation, PET/MRI imaging is the hottest topic currently. PET/MRI is swiftly making its way into clinical practice. However, it has many technical difficulties to overcome, such as photomultiplier tubes, which cannot work properly in a magnetic field, and the inability to provide density information on the object for attenuation correction. This paper introduces the technique process of PET/MRI and summarizes its clinical applications, including imaging in oncology, neurology, and cardiology.

Contrast agents for MRI: 30+ years and where are we going?

Thirty years ago, Schering filed the first patent application for a contrast agent for magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) covering the forefather of the gadolinium contrast agents and still the most widely used gadolinium probe: gadolinium(III) diethylenetriaminepentaacetate (Magnevist). To date, 11 contrast agents have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration for intravenous use. Coordination chemists have done a great deal to move the field forward. Our understanding of lanthanide chemistry now makes possible the design of complexes with long rotational correlation times, fast or slow water-exchange rates, high thermodynamic stabilities, and kinetic inertness, leading to sensitive and nontoxic contrast agents. Chemists did not stop there. The last few decades has seen the development of novel classes of probes that yield contrast through different mechanisms, such as paramagnetic chemical exchange saturation transfer agents. Thirty years since the first patent, chemists are still leading the way. The development of high-sensitivity contrast agents for high magnetic fields, safe probes for patients with kidney disorders, and multimodal, targeted, and responsive agents demonstrates that the field of contrast agents for MRI still has much to offer.