An observational study of once-daily modified-release methylphenidate in ADHD: effectiveness on symptoms and impairment, and safety

Adverse Events During Dosing of Delayed-release/Extended-release Methylphenidate: Learnings From the Open-label Phase of a Registration Trial and a Real-world Postmarketing Surveillance Program

PURPOSE

Delayed-release/extended-release methylphenidate (DR/ER-MPH) (formerly HLD200) is an evening-dosed agent used for the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder. Postmarketing surveillance data from approximately 74,000 patients exposed to DR/ER-MPH (up to June 17, 2022) were reported and compared with the open-label, treatment-optimization phase of a Phase III clinical trial to derive possible learnings on how to approach adverse events (AEs) that emerge during dose titration.

METHODS

An analysis of AEs spontaneously reported to Ironshore in postmarketing surveillance included, where available, age, dose, timing, and discontinuations. Data were summarized using descriptive statistics.

FINDINGS

A total of 395 children, adolescents, and adults reported 601 AEs in postmarketing surveillance. Five AEs were classified as serious. AEs preceded drug use discontinuation in 172 patients. Many AEs occurred early (52% were reported within 30 days) and at lower doses (54% were reported at 20 to 40 mg), similar to the trial data. Reported AEs included those similar in type but orders of magnitude lower in number than those from the clinical trial.

IMPLICATIONS

No new safety concerns were revealed in this real-world setting compared with the safety profile identified in DR/ER-MPH trial data. In real-world practices, clinicians tended to discontinue DR/ER-MPH treatment after AE onset, whereas trial investigators continued to optimize treatment and found that AEs were generally tolerable, suggesting that health care practitioners may consider developing strategies to manage tolerability issues with DR/ER-MPH treatment on AE emergence rather than immediately discontinuing use of the drug to provide optimal therapeutic benefit.

CLINICALTRIALS

gov identifier: NCT02493777.

Early Morning ADHD Symptoms and Functional Impairment: Impact on Patients and Caregivers, and Pharmacological Approaches to Management

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common and impairing mental disorder. Individuals with ADHD typically experience symptoms from awakening throughout the entire day, contributing to impaired function at home, at school, and in the workplace. Treatment is available to address the symptoms of ADHD; however, the extent to which treatments afford improved function remains less clear. Impaired function in children and adolescents, particularly in the early morning where multiple tasks must be completed, from getting out of bed, and having breakfast to leaving for school on time, is common even among stimulant-treated children, and can increase stress upon caregivers and family members. Herein, we present a narrative review on early morning functioning impairment in children and adolescents with ADHD, its impact on caregivers, the rating scales available for clinicians to identify the degree of early morning functioning impairment, and the efficacy of currently available treatments in providing functional improvements to patients with ADHD during the early morning, identifying that only treatments that are available upon awakening have been shown to statistically separate from placebo for early morning functioning improvement.

Methylphenidate for attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children and adolescents - assessment of adverse events in non-randomised studies

BACKGROUND

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) is a common neurodevelopmental disorder in childhood. The psychostimulant methylphenidate is the most frequently used medication to treat it. Several studies have investigated the benefits of methylphenidate, showing possible favourable effects on ADHD symptoms, but the true magnitude of the effect is unknown. Concerning adverse events associated with the treatment, our systematic review of randomised clinical trials (RCTs) demonstrated no increase in serious adverse events, but a high proportion of participants suffered a range of non-serious adverse events.

OBJECTIVES

To assess the adverse events associated with methylphenidate treatment for children and adolescents with ADHD in non-randomised studies.

SEARCH METHODS

In January 2016, we searched CENTRAL, MEDLINE, Embase, PsycINFO, CINAHL, 12 other databases and two trials registers. We also checked reference lists and contacted authors and pharmaceutical companies to identify additional studies.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included non-randomised study designs. These comprised comparative and non-comparative cohort studies, patient-control studies, patient reports/series and cross-sectional studies of methylphenidate administered at any dosage or formulation. We also included methylphenidate groups from RCTs assessing methylphenidate versus other interventions for ADHD as well as data from follow-up periods in RCTs. Participants had to have an ADHD diagnosis (from the 3rd to the 5th edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or the 9th or 10th edition of theInternational Classification of Diseases, with or without comorbid diagnoses. We required that at least 75% of participants had a normal intellectual capacity (intelligence quotient of more than 70 points) and were aged below 20 years. We excluded studies that used another ADHD drug as a co-intervention.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Fourteen review authors selected studies independently. Two review authors assessed risk of bias independently using the ROBINS-I tool for assessing risk of bias in non-randomised studies of interventions. All review authors extracted data. We defined serious adverse events according to the International Committee of Harmonization as any lethal, life-threatening or life-changing event. We considered all other adverse events to be non-serious adverse events and conducted meta-analyses of data from comparative studies. We calculated meta-analytic estimates of prevalence from non-comparative cohorts studies and synthesised data from patient reports/series qualitatively. We investigated heterogeneity by conducting subgroup analyses, and we also conducted sensitivity analyses.

MAIN RESULTS

We included a total of 260 studies: 7 comparative cohort studies, 6 of which compared 968 patients who were exposed to methylphenidate to 166 controls, and 1 which assessed 1224 patients that were exposed or not exposed to methylphenidate during different time periods; 4 patient-control studies (53,192 exposed to methylphenidate and 19,906 controls); 177 non-comparative cohort studies (2,207,751 participants); 2 cross-sectional studies (96 participants) and 70 patient reports/series (206 participants). Participants' ages ranged from 3 years to 20 years. Risk of bias in the included comparative studies ranged from moderate to critical, with most studies showing critical risk of bias. We evaluated all non-comparative studies at critical risk of bias. The GRADE quality rating of the evidence was very low.Primary outcomesIn the comparative studies, methylphenidate increased the risk ratio (RR) of serious adverse events (RR 1.36, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.17 to 1.57; 2 studies, 72,005 participants); any psychotic disorder (RR 1.36, 95% CI 1.17 to 1.57; 1 study, 71,771 participants); and arrhythmia (RR 1.61, 95% CI 1.48 to 1.74; 1 study, 1224 participants) compared to no intervention.In the non-comparative cohort studies, the proportion of participants on methylphenidate experiencing any serious adverse event was 1.20% (95% CI 0.70% to 2.00%; 50 studies, 162,422 participants). Withdrawal from methylphenidate due to any serious adverse events occurred in 1.20% (95% CI 0.60% to 2.30%; 7 studies, 1173 participants) and adverse events of unknown severity led to withdrawal in 7.30% of participants (95% CI 5.30% to 10.0%; 22 studies, 3708 participants).Secondary outcomesIn the comparative studies, methylphenidate, compared to no intervention, increased the RR of insomnia and sleep problems (RR 2.58, 95% CI 1.24 to 5.34; 3 studies, 425 participants) and decreased appetite (RR 15.06, 95% CI 2.12 to 106.83; 1 study, 335 participants).With non-comparative cohort studies, the proportion of participants on methylphenidate with any non-serious adverse events was 51.2% (95% CI 41.2% to 61.1%; 49 studies, 13,978 participants). These included difficulty falling asleep, 17.9% (95% CI 14.7% to 21.6%; 82 studies, 11,507 participants); headache, 14.4% (95% CI 11.3% to 18.3%; 90 studies, 13,469 participants); abdominal pain, 10.7% (95% CI 8.60% to 13.3%; 79 studies, 11,750 participants); and decreased appetite, 31.1% (95% CI 26.5% to 36.2%; 84 studies, 11,594 participants). Withdrawal of methylphenidate due to non-serious adverse events occurred in 6.20% (95% CI 4.80% to 7.90%; 37 studies, 7142 participants), and 16.2% were withdrawn for unknown reasons (95% CI 13.0% to 19.9%; 57 studies, 8340 participants).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that methylphenidate may be associated with a number of serious adverse events as well as a large number of non-serious adverse events in children and adolescents, which often lead to withdrawal of methylphenidate. Our certainty in the evidence is very low, and accordingly, it is not possible to accurately estimate the actual risk of adverse events. It might be higher than reported here.Given the possible association between methylphenidate and the adverse events identified, it may be important to identify people who are most susceptible to adverse events. To do this we must undertake large-scale, high-quality RCTs, along with studies aimed at identifying responders and non-responders.

Daily Symptom Profiles of Children With ADHD Treated With Modified-Release Methylphenidate

OBJECTIVE

The aim was to identify subgroups of patients with ADHD with different daily symptom profiles and to characterize their response to modified-release methylphenidate (MR MPH) treatment, using data from the observational trial OBSEER.

METHOD

OBSEER included patients aged 6 to 17 years receiving MR MPH under routine care. To detect subgroups, a latent class cluster analysis was applied. Sex, age, MR MPH dose, and emotional symptoms were considered predictors of response.

RESULTS

The analysis included 637 patients (81.3% male), with a mean age (standard deviation) of 10.1 (2.5) years. A two-class solution best fit the data, identifying a high-severity group (49.8%) with pronounced symptom reduction, and a low-severity group (50.2%) with minor changes throughout the day. Younger age, male sex, and higher MPH doses were predictive of the high-severity class.

CONCLUSION

Children with ADHD treated with MR MPH are heterogeneous, and subgroups with differential treatment response can be identified.

Transcranial direct current stimulation improves clinical symptoms in adolescents with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder

Anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) of the prefrontal cortex has repeatedly been shown to improve working memory. As patients with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are characterized by both underactivation of the prefrontal cortex and deficits in working memory that correlate with clinical symptoms, it is hypothesized that the modulation of prefrontal activity with tDCS in patients with ADHD increases performance in working memory and reduces symptoms of ADHD. To test this hypothesis, fifteen adolescents with ADHD (12-16 years old, three girls and 12 boys) were treated according to the randomized, double-blinded, sham-controlled, crossover design with either 1 mA anodal tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex or with the sham protocol 5 days each with a 2 weeks pause between these conditions. Anodal tDCS caused a significant reduction in clinical symptoms of inattention and impulsivity in adolescents with ADHD compared to sham stimulation. The clinical effects were supported by a significant reduction in inattention and hyperactivity in a standardized working memory test (QbTest). The described effects were more pronounced 7 days after the end of stimulation, a fact which emphasizes the long-lasting clinical and neuropsychological changes after tDCS. This study provides the first evidence that tDCS may reduce symptoms of ADHD and improve neuropsychological functioning in adolescents and points on the potential of tDCS as a form of treatment for ADHD.

Changes in behavior as side effects in methylphenidate treatment: review of the literature

BACKGROUND

Our review of the scientific literature focused on an analysis of studies describing instances of methylphenidate treatment leading (or not) to behavioral changes in the pediatric, adolescent, and adult populations.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We conducted a literature search in PubMed, Medline, and Google using the keywords "methylphenidate", "behavioral changes", "adverse effects", and "side effects". A total of 44 studies were identified as reporting on the effects and adverse effects of methylphenidate administration, and were included in the analysis.

RESULTS

Five studies specifically set out to study, record, and discuss changes in behavior. Eight studies did not set out to study behavioral effects, but record and discuss them. A total of 28 studies recorded behavioral effects, but failed to discuss these further. Three studies did not include behavioral effects.

CONCLUSION

This review records what data have been published in respect of changes in behavior in association with the use of methylphenidate. While there is some evidence to suggest that methylphenidate causes changes in behavior, the majority of the studies reviewed paid little or no attention to this issue. Based on the available data, it is impossible to determine the point at which such behavioral effects occur. The frequency of occurrence of behavioral effects is also impossible to determine with certainty. Based on the available data, it is not possible to rule out whether behavioral effects may persist or not persist once treatment is discontinued. In conclusion, despite countless publications and extensive administration, especially to children, we have insufficient data to judge the long-term effects and risks of methylphenidate taking.

Early Morning Functioning in Stimulant-Treated Children and Adolescents with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder, and its Impact on Caregivers

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine the temporal occurrence and severity of inadequate attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptom control throughout the day, and, more specifically, the frequency and severity of associated functional impairments and their apparent emotional impact on parents and caregivers during the early morning routine before school, in children and adolescents with ADHD currently treated with stable doses of stimulant medications.

METHODS

Information was obtained from 201 primary caregivers of children and adolescents with ADHD using a self-administered, on-line quantitative research survey.

RESULTS

Inadequately controlled ADHD symptoms were rated as most severe during the evening homework time and the early morning routine. The majority of caregivers reported early morning ADHD symptoms and impairment of early morning functioning (EMF) as moderate to severe. Caregiver reactions to their child's early morning ADHD symptoms and unwanted behaviors included feeling overwhelmed, exhausted, and constantly stressed.

CONCLUSIONS

Control of EMF impairments from inadequately controlled ADHD symptoms is a significant unmet need in children and adolescents with ADHD treated with stable morning doses of stimulant medications. Current orally administered stimulant treatment options have not addressed this challenge.

Effectiveness and safety of a long-acting, once-daily, two-phase release formulation of methylphenidate (Ritalin ® LA) in school children under daily practice conditions

Long-acting (LA) preparations of methylphenidate allow for once-daily dosing; however, pharmacokinetics may vary and depend on food intake. The objective was to evaluate effectiveness of a two-phase release formulation (Ritalin(®) LA) under daily practice conditions. This was a prospective, multicenter, observational study in Germany. Eligibility and dosing were determined by the physician based on the drug label. Outcomes included changes over 3 months of treatment in assessments of effect duration, clinical global impression (CGI), and quality of life (ILK). In 101 sites, 262 patients (197 boys, 63 girls, and two unknown) with a mean age of 10.9 years were enrolled; 50 were treated for the first time; 212 switched medication to Ritalin(®) LA. After 3 months, CGI improved in 59.4 % of patients, and well-being overall was rated as good by 61.0 % of parents and 63.7 % of children. Based on parents' assessment, the proportion of children suffering from strong disease burden decreased from 40.7 to 15.1 %. In 123 insufficient responders to previous ADHD medications, benefit from Ritalin(®) LA was above average and effect duration was significantly prolonged as compared to pretreatment. Overall, 28 patients (10.7 %) had treatment-related adverse events with one case being serious; 23 patients (8.8 %) discontinued therapy, 7 (2.7 %) due to poor treatment response; and 212 patients (81 %) continued treatment beyond the study. In line with clinical trial data, Ritalin(®) LA provides significant benefit also under routine practice conditions.

Methylphenidate Efficacy: Immediate versus Extended Release at Short Term in Mexican Children with ADHD Assessed by Conners Scale and EEG

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) affects 5-6% of school aged children worldwide. Pharmacological therapy is considered the first-line treatment and methylphenidate (MPH) is considered the first-choice medication. There are two formulations: immediate release (IR) MPH and long-acting (or extended release) formulation (MPH-ER). In this work, we measure the efficacy of treatment for both presentations in one month with Conners' scales and electroencephalography (EEG). Results. for IR group, in parents and teachers Conners test, all items showed significant differences, towards improvement, except for teachers in perfectionism and emotional instability. For ER group in parent's Conners test, the items in which there were no significant differences are psychosomatic and emotional instability. For teachers, there were no significant differences in: hyperactivity and perfectionism. Comparing the Conners questionnaires (parents versus teachers) we find significant differences before and after treatment in hyperactivity, perfectionism, psychosomatics, DSM-IV hyperactive-impulsive, and DSM-IV total. In the EEG the Wilcoxon test showed a significant difference (P < 0.0001). As we can see, both presentations are suitable for managing the ADHD and have the same effect on the symptomatology and in the EEG.

Treatment compliance or medication adherence in children and adolescents on ADHD medication in clinical practice: results from the COMPLY observational study

Although the efficacy and tolerability of ADHD medications have been investigated fairly extensively, there are very few data comparing the different types of medication (e.g. psychostimulants, non-stimulants) in terms of medication adherence. The primary research objective of the COMPLY observational study was to evaluate medication adherence (i.e. compliance) over 1 year in children and adolescents with ADHD in a routine clinical setting. COMPLY was a prospective 12-month, observational, open-label study that included children and adolescents, aged 6-17 years, with ADHD. Medication adherence (i.e. compliance) was measured using the Pediatric Compliance Self-Rating (PCSR) instrument and using items 1-4 of the Medication Adherence Rating Scale (MARS). A total of 504 patients were enrolled. At baseline, 252 patients (50.0 %) were prescribed non-stimulant (atomoxetine) medication and 247 patients (49.0 %) were prescribed psychostimulant medication. Both types of medication were prescribed concomitantly in five patients (1.0 %). After 12 months, 123 patients (48.8 %) were taking atomoxetine and 176 patients (71.3 %) were taking psychostimulants. Adherence (PCSR score ≥ 5) was present in both groups (atomoxetine: 67.5 %; psychostimulant: 74.2 %) throughout the observation period. MARS scores declined over time in both groups (atomoxetine: from 3.7 to 2.9; psychostimulant: from 3.6 to 3.1), indicating a deterioration in adherence. There was no statistically significant difference in terms of medication adherence between the two groups.

Ginkgo biloba extract EGb 761® in children with ADHD

OBJECTIVES

The side effects, nonresponse, and prejudices against conventional pharmacological treatments call for complementary or alternative medical treatments (CAM) for ADHD. One possible treatment, at least for cognitive problems, might be the administration of Ginkgo biloba, though evidence is currently rare. This study tests the clinical efficacy of a Ginkgo biloba special extract (EGb 761®) and its correlation with brain electrical activity in children with ADHD combined type according to DSM-IV.

METHOD

In this open clinical pilot study, EGb 761® was administered to 20 children with ADHD over 3 to 5 weeks. Dosage was increased to a maximum of 240 mg daily if attention problems persisted. Possible drug side effects were assessed using the Side Effect Rating Scale. Efficacy was assessed in a multilevel approach including clinical assessment, quality of life (QoL), as well as performance and preparatory brain-electrical activity evoked during a Continuous Performance Test (Cue-CNV in the CPT).

RESULTS

A very low rate of mild adverse effects occurred during the observation period. Following EGb 761® administration, possible improvements in QoL, ADHD core symptoms as well as CPT performance were detected. Improved core symptoms were positively related to elevated CNV amplitude.

CONCLUSION

This preliminary evidence suggests that EGb 761® at a maximal dosage of 240 mg daily might be a clinically useful alternative treatment for children with ADHD, but further evidence is required before firm conclusions can be made.

Development of a physiologically based model to describe the pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate in juvenile and adult humans and nonhuman primates

The widespread usage of methylphenidate (MPH) in the pediatric population has received considerable attention due to its potential effect on child development. For the first time a physiologically based pharmacokinetic (PBPK) model has been developed in juvenile and adult humans and nonhuman primates to quantitatively evaluate species- and age-dependent enantiomer specific pharmacokinetics of MPH and its primary metabolite ritalinic acid. The PBPK model was first calibrated in adult humans using in vitro enzyme kinetic data of MPH enantiomers, together with plasma and urine pharmacokinetic data with MPH in adult humans. Metabolism of MPH in the small intestine was assumed to account for the low oral bioavailability of MPH. Due to lack of information, model development for children and juvenile and adult nonhuman primates primarily relied on intra- and interspecies extrapolation using allometric scaling. The juvenile monkeys appear to metabolize MPH more rapidly than adult monkeys and humans, both adults and children. Model prediction performance is comparable between juvenile monkeys and children, with average root mean squared error values of 4.1 and 2.1, providing scientific basis for interspecies extrapolation of toxicity findings. Model estimated human equivalent doses in children that achieve similar internal dose metrics to those associated with pubertal delays in juvenile monkeys were found to be close to the therapeutic doses of MPH used in pediatric patients. This computational analysis suggests that continued pharmacovigilance assessment is prudent for the safe use of MPH.

An evaluation of the pharmacokinetics of methylphenidate for the treatment of attention-deficit/ hyperactivity disorder

INTRODUCTION

Methylphenidate (MPH) plays a principal role in the multimodal treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Controlled studies have demonstrated an effective reduction in the core symptoms of the disorder following MPH therapy, although long-term studies also demonstrate that the therapeutic benefits dissipate in the absence of combined psychosocial interventions.

AREAS COVERED

This review article focuses on the pharmacological characteristics of MPH, examining its effects on brain metabolism and the neurotransmitter system. Neuropsychological and clinical effects of different immediate and extended release MPH formulations are discussed to aid clinicians in choosing the appropriate formulation. The drug's addictive potency and abuse potential is also discussed. Data came from a literature search of relevant studies performed using the PubMed database up to June 2013.

EXPERT OPINION

MPH is effective in the treatment of the core symptoms of ADHD. Considerable clinical expertise is required to identify an individually well-adapted dosage which will produce the optimal clinical effects with potential side effects minimized. Due to low adherence to medication, especially in adolescents, motivation to treatment and attentive clinical monitoring is mandatory, as is the consideration of risks of abuse or the presence of a comorbid addictive disorder.

Long-acting methylphenidate formulations in the treatment of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder: a systematic review of head-to-head studies

BACKGROUND

The stimulant methylphenidate (MPH) has been a mainstay of treatment for attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) for many years. Owing to the short half-life and the issues associated with multiple daily dosing of immediate-release MPH formulations, a new generation of long-acting MPH formulations has emerged. Direct head-to-head studies of these long-acting MPH formulations are important to facilitate an evaluation of their comparative pharmacokinetics and efficacy; however, to date, relatively few head-to-head studies have been performed.The objective of this systematic review was to compare the evidence available from head-to-head studies of long-acting MPH formulations and provide information that can guide treatment selection.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted in MEDLINE and PsycINFO in March 2012 using the MeSH terms: attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity/drug therapy; methylphenidate/therapeutic use and All Fields: Concerta; Ritalin LA; OROS and ADHD; Medikinet; Equasym XL and ADHD; long-acting methylphenidate; Diffucaps and ADHD; SODAS and methylphenidate. No filters were applied and no language, publication date or publication status limitations were imposed. Articles were selected if the title indicated a comparison of two or more long-acting MPH preparations in human subjects of any age; non-systematic review articles and unpublished data were not included.

RESULTS

Of 15,295 references returned in the literature search and screened by title, 34 articles were identified for inclusion: nine articles from pharmacokinetic studies (nine studies); nine articles from laboratory school studies (six studies); two articles from randomized controlled trials (two studies); three articles from switching studies (two studies) and three articles from one observational study.

CONCLUSIONS

Emerging head-to-head studies provide important data on the comparative efficacy of the formulations available. At a group level, efficacy across the day generally follows the pharmacokinetic profile of the MPH formulation. No formulation is clearly superior to another; careful consideration of patient needs and subtle differences between formulations is required to optimize treatment. For patients achieving suboptimal symptom control, switching long-acting MPH formulations may be beneficial. When switching formulations, it is usually appropriate to titrate the immediate-release component of the formulation; a limitation of current studies is a focus on total daily dose rather than equivalent immediate-release components. Further studies are necessary to provide guidance in clinical practice, particularly in the treatment of adults and pre-school children and the impact of comorbidities and symptom severity on treatment response.

An observational study of response heterogeneity in children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder following treatment switch to modified-release methylphenidate

BACKGROUND

Methylphenidate (MPH) has been shown to be effective in the treatment of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) in children. The overall population of children and adolescents with ADHD may comprise distinct clusters of patients that differ in response to MPH. The aim of this analysis was to look for subgroups with different treatment trajectories and to identify their distinctive features.

METHODS

OBSEER was a prospective, observational study examining the effectiveness and safety of once-daily modified-release MPH over 3 months in patients (aged 6-17 years) with ADHD under routine care. Assessments were carried out at baseline (Visit 1), after 1-3 weeks (Visit 2) and 6-12 weeks (Visit 3) after first use of once-daily modified-release MPH. Change in ADHD symptoms, as rated by parents and teachers, was examined post hoc in patients of the intent-to-treat-population (N = 822), using growth-mixture modelling to detect response trajectory groups after switching medication. Age, MPH dose at Visit 1 before medication switch, prescribed once-daily modified-release MPH dose at Visits 1 and 2, conduct problems and emotional symptoms were considered predictors of response subgroups.

RESULTS

Assessing formal statistical criteria and usefulness of the models, a 4-class solution best fitted the data: after switching medication two response groups with severe symptoms at study start and subsequent substantial treatment effects, and two showing no or comparatively little treatment effect, one of which had severe and the other less severe symptoms at study start. Patient age, conduct problems and MPH dose at Visit 1 were predictors of inclusion in subgroups.

CONCLUSIONS

Older children and children with few conduct problems were more likely to be members of a patient cluster with fewer symptoms at study start. Children with a low MPH dose before medication switch had a higher chance of being in the patient cluster with a strong treatment response after switching medication. The current analyses should assist in identifying children likely to achieve a favourable treatment course with MPH and, additionally, those who are in need of alternative treatment options.

Relationship between quality of life and psychopathological profile: data from an observational study in children with ADHD

Although ADHD significantly affects the quality of life (QoL) of patients and their families, QoL in children with ADHD has rarely been investigated in association with psychopathological profile, and the relationship remains unclear. The open-label OBSEER study evaluated the effectiveness and tolerability of Equasym XL(®), a modified-release methylphenidate, in routine care of children and adolescents (aged 6-17 years) with ADHD. At baseline, questionnaires assessing psychopathological profile (Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire, SDQ; parental ratings) and QoL (KINDL; parent, child or adolescent versions) were completed; QoL was reassessed at final visit. We analysed the relationship between psychopathology and parent/patient-rated QoL in ADHD at baseline. Data from 721 consecutively referred children and adolescents were analysed. QoL was similarly low from parent and self-ratings and independent of severity on the SDQ subscale hyperactivity/inattention. Self-ratings indicated that additional conduct disorder was associated with further reduction in QoL. Similarly, children with high scores from parent and adolescent ratings on the SDQ subscale conduct problems had reduced QoL on some KINDL subscales. Adolescents with ADHD not receiving medication at baseline reported lower QoL than those already on medication. Results show that children and adolescents with ADHD have low QoL, independent of core symptom severity. Additional conduct problems may further impact QoL negatively, while ADHD medication use may show a trend towards improved QoL. Not all psychopathological problems associated with ADHD affect QoL similarly. As parents appear to have a less critical view of QoL compared with children's self-ratings, both parent and child ratings should be included in clinical assessments.

What contributes to patient and parent satisfaction with medication in the treatment of children with ADHD? A report on the development of a new rating scale

Satisfaction with medication is important in the evaluation of overall treatment outcome. There is a lack of consistent and validated rating scales for satisfaction with medication in ADHD, therefore comparison across studies is difficult. Here, we analyse the psychometric properties of the satisfaction with medication scale (SAMS), a new item-based questionnaire that assesses satisfaction with ADHD medication. Furthermore, we evaluate the predictive effect of ADHD symptoms and quality of life (QoL) on satisfaction. Data on satisfaction with Equasym XL(®) (methylphenidate) were collected in the OBSEER study using the parent (SAMS-P, n = 589) and patient (SAMS-S, n = 552) versions of the SAMS questionnaire. Internal consistency, item-total and cross-informant correlations, and the stability of satisfaction ratings over time were assessed. Satisfaction with medication scores were then correlated with ratings of ADHD symptoms and QoL. Rates of overall satisfaction with Equasym XL(®) among parents and children were high (>70%), as was internal consistency for both SAMS-P and SAMS-S (Cronbach's alpha > 0.9). Similarly, item-total correlations were high (r = 0.71-0.90) for SAMS-P and medium-high (r = 0.57-0.77) for SAMS-S. Cross-informant correlations and the stability of satisfaction ratings were moderate (r = 0.54-0.59 and 0.48-0.60, respectively). ADHD symptom and QoL ratings were significantly negative and positive predictors of satisfaction, explaining 36-52% of satisfaction variance at the final visit. The results show that parent and patient satisfaction was high and could be assessed reliably with the new SAMS questionnaire. Parent and patient ratings were moderately correlated, and symptom severity, functional impairment and QoL were the most significant predictors of satisfaction.

An observational study of once-daily modified-release methylphenidate in ADHD: quality of life, satisfaction with treatment and adherence

Attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) impacts significantly on the quality of life (QoL) of patients and their families. Choice of therapy is increasingly influenced by treatment satisfaction and patient preference, with once-daily modified-release methylphenidate (MPH-MR) formulations offering clear benefits compared with immediate-release (IR) dosage forms. The effects of MPH-MR on QoL in ADHD have not been widely investigated and need more clarity in practice. The open-label OBSEER study evaluated the effectiveness and tolerability of Equasym XL(®), a MPH-MR formulation, in routine practice. Children and adolescents (aged 6-17 years) with ADHD and attending school were included if Equasym XL(®) treatment was planned by the treating physician. Physicians, parents and patients completed questionnaires assessing QoL (KINDL; parent, child or adolescent versions), satisfaction with medication, adherence and treatment tolerability at baseline (Visit 1), 1-3 weeks (Visit 2) and 6-12 weeks (Visit 3) over a maximum 3-month observation period. Data from 822 consecutively referred patients were analysed. QoL and medication satisfaction increased from Visit 1 to Visit 3, with both patients and parents rating therapy with Equasym XL(®) as better than previous drug therapy. KINDL total score effect sizes were 0.67 (parents' ratings), 0.52 (children's ratings) and 0.51 (adolescents' ratings; all p < 0.001). All KINDL subscores also increased: both parents and patients had the greatest improvement for school. Adherence to Equasym XL(®) was frequently rated as superior to prior treatment, particularly compared with MPH-IR repeated dosing. Treatment was generally well tolerated; approximately 3% of the patients discontinued treatment due to adverse events. Equasym XL(®) improved QoL compared with prior therapy, and resulted in good medication satisfaction and adherence in drug-naïve and previously treated patients.

Assessment of daily profiles of ADHD and ODD symptoms, and symptomatology related to ADHD medication, by parent and teacher ratings

DAYAS is a new two-part rating scale that assesses: (1) ADHD and ODD symptoms (externalising symptom ratings) and (2) symptomatology potentially related to ADHD medication (potentially medication-related symptoms) in real-world settings at different time periods throughout a normal school day. Data from a proof-of-concept study and two observational trials (Medikinet(®) retard [methylphenidate] and the Equasym XL(®) [methylphenidate] OBSEER study) evaluated: (1) validity of weekly externalising symptom ratings using DAYAS, in place of daily ratings; (2) reliability and internal consistency of DAYAS ratings for externalising symptoms and potentially medication-related symptoms; and (3) convergent and divergent validity of the externalising symptom ratings with existing validated scales. From the proof-of-concept study, daily scores by period of day and during the whole day correlated strongly with equivalent weekly scores (r = 0.83-0.92). Internal consistency of externalising symptom rating scales calculated from pooled data were acceptable or good by period of day (Cronbach's alpha = 0.68-0.90) and very high for whole day scores (Cronbach's alpha = 0.88-0.95). Internal consistency of the rating scale for potentially medication-related symptoms was also good for both teacher and parent ratings. From OBSEER data, correlations between FBB-ADHD total symptom scores and ratings on both parent and teacher versions of DAYAS were high (r = 0.73 and r = 0.84, respectively). Correlations between DAYAS and SDQ were highest for the SDQ subscales hyperactivity and conduct problems and substantially lower for pro-social behaviour, peers and emotional problems. The DAYAS rating scale had good internal consistency, and DAYAS scores correlated well with existing validated scales and the SDQ subscales hyperactivity and conduct problems. Weekly DAYAS scores (whole day and by period of day) could be considered a suitable replacement for daily assessment scores.

An observational study of once-daily modified-release methylphenidate in ADHD: the effect of previous treatment on ADHD symptoms, other externalising symptoms and quality-of-life outcomes

Methylphenidate (MPH) is the most commonly prescribed stimulant for children with ADHD. Data on the effects of different MPH formulations in real-life settings are scarce, and the role of previous therapy on treatment outcome when switching medications has not been well studied. OBSEER was an observational study designed to evaluate the effectiveness and safety of Equasym XL(®) in routine care. This study assessed whether the improvements reported with Equasym XL(®) are influenced by the degree of symptom control achieved with the previous medication. Patients enrolled in OBSEER were stratified by prior treatment (none, MPH-immediate release [IR] once daily [o.d.] [MPH-IR o.d.], MPH-IR repeated [MPH-IR >o.d.] and MPH-MR [modified release] excluding Equasym XL(®)), and changes in ADHD and other externalising symptoms (CGI-S, FBB-ADHD and DAYAS) and quality of life (QoL, KINDL) were evaluated during treatment with Equasym XL(®). A total of 782 patients were analysed. Significant group-by-time interactions were found for all symptom variables analysed, indicating that effects varied by previous medication. For CGI-S and FBB-ADHD total scores, the greatest reductions in ADHD symptoms were observed in the treatment-naïve subgroup, followed (in order) by MPH-IR o.d., MPH-IR >o.d. and MPH-MR. A similar profile was seen for DAYAS ratings for all periods of the day except the evening, when there were no significant differences between subgroups. Similarly, the treatment-naïve and MPH-IR o.d. subgroups showed the greatest improvements in KINDL ratings. Although effects were greatest for treatment-naïve patients, improvements were also observed in the prior treatment subgroups for symptoms and QoL. This suggests that a change to Equasym XL(®) may be beneficial in patients with suboptimal effects on prior medication.

Editorial: Observational studies in ADHD: the effects of switching to modified-release methylphenidate preparations on clinical outcomes and adherence

Patients with ADHD may have better adherence to treatment with modified-release methylphenidate (MPH-MR) formulations, which are taken once daily, compared with immediate-release (IR) formulations, which need to be taken several times a day. Data on long-term outcomes such as adherence may be lacking from randomised controlled trials as these are usually only short-term. Observational studies, if performed and reported appropriately, can provide valuable long-term data on such outcomes, as well as additional information on effectiveness and efficiency, from a real-life setting. By reviewing previous observational studies that have investigated switching treatment from MPH-IR to MPH-MR, results from a new, naturalistic observational study, the OBSEER study, are put into context. We conclude that, based on observational trial data, switching from MPH-IR to MPH-MR is a valid clinical approach, with the potential for improved clinical outcome and treatment adherence.