Educational level, attention problems, and externalizing behaviour in adolescence and early adulthood: the role of social causation and health-related selection-the TRAILS study

Parental SES and family support as predictors of educational level: Testing the buffering effect of effortful control and peer support

INTRODUCTION

Exposure to family risk factors increases adolescents' chances of attaining a lower educational level. However, some adolescents attain a high educational level despite being exposed to family risk factors such as a lower parental socioeconomic status (SES) or receiving less family support.

METHOD

Using data from the Dutch TRAILS cohort study (NT1 = 2175; Mage = 11.1, SD = 0.55, 50.8% female), we investigated if higher levels of effortful control and peer support can buffer against the negative effects of a lower parental SES and less family support on educational level. Two multinomial logistic regressions were performed (from early to mid-adolescence and from mid-adolescence to young adulthood) with post hoc tests to contrast four ordinal educational levels: practical vocational, theoretical vocational, higher general, and (pre-)university.

RESULTS

Adolescents with a higher parental SES were consistently more likely to end up at a higher educational level, but family support was hardly associated with educational level. Neither effortful control nor peer support buffered the associations of parental SES and family support with educational level. Effortful control did have a positive direct (compensatory) effect on the educational level.

CONCLUSION

We conclude that other individual competencies or more structural changes may be more helpful buffers for reducing socioeconomic inequalities in educational attainment.

Childhood behavior problems and adverse economic outcomes: a 30-year population-based study of intergenerational income mobility

BACKGROUND

The objectives of this study were to (a) assess the associations between early behavioral problems and intergenerational income mobility (i.e., the degree to which income status is transmitted from one generation to the next), (b) verify whether these associations are moderated by child sex, and (c) explore indirect effects of early behavioral problems on income mobility via high school graduation.

METHODS

Data were drawn from the Quebec Longitudinal Study of Kindergarten Children (n = 3,020; 49.17% girls). Participants were followed from age 6 to 37 years. Measures included parents' and teachers' ratings of behavioral problems at age 6 years as well as participants' (ages 30-35 years) and their parents' (when participants were aged 10-19 years) income data obtained from tax return records. Regression models were used to predict upward and downward mobility (i.e., increased or decreased income status from one generation to the next) from attention-deficit/hyperactivity problems, conduct/opposition problems, depression/anxiety problems, prosociality, and the quality of children's relationship with their caregiver. Two-way interaction effects between behavioral problems and child sex were examined and indirect effect models including high school graduation as a mediator of these associations were conducted.

RESULTS

Despite their higher educational attainment, females had lower incomes and experienced lower upward (but higher downward) income mobility than males. For both females and males, higher levels of attention-deficit/hyperactivity and conduct/opposition problems were associated with decreased odds of upward mobility, whereas higher levels of attention-deficit/hyperactivity were associated with increased odds of downward mobility. Attention-deficit/hyperactivity problems, conduct/opposition problems as well as low prosociality were associated with lower educational attainment (no high school diploma), which in turn was associated with increased odds of downward mobility.

CONCLUSIONS

Results highlight the importance of providing intensive support to children with early behavioral problems as a means of improving educational attainment and intergenerational income mobility.

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder

Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD; also known as hyperkinetic disorder) is a common neurodevelopmental condition that affects children and adults worldwide. ADHD has a predominantly genetic aetiology that involves common and rare genetic variants. Some environmental correlates of the disorder have been discovered but causation has been difficult to establish. The heterogeneity of the condition is evident in the diverse presentation of symptoms and levels of impairment, the numerous co-occurring mental and physical conditions, the various domains of neurocognitive impairment, and extensive minor structural and functional brain differences. The diagnosis of ADHD is reliable and valid when evaluated with standard diagnostic criteria. Curative treatments for ADHD do not exist but evidence-based treatments substantially reduce symptoms and/or functional impairment. Medications are effective for core symptoms and are usually well tolerated. Some non-pharmacological treatments are valuable, especially for improving adaptive functioning. Clinical and neurobiological research is ongoing and could lead to the creation of personalized diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for this disorder.

Using twin-pairs to assess potential bias in polygenic prediction of externalising behaviours across development

Prediction from polygenic scores may be confounded sources of passive gene-environment correlation (rGE; e.g. population stratification, assortative mating, and environmentally mediated effects of parental genotype on child phenotype). Using genomic data from 10,000 twin pairs, we asked whether polygenic scores from the recent externalising genome-wide association study predicted conduct problems, ADHD symptomology and callous-unemotional traits, and whether these predictions are biased by rGE. We ran regression models including within-family and between-family polygenic scores, to separate the direct genetic influence on a trait from environmental influences that correlate with genes (indirect genetic effects). Findings suggested that this externalising polygenic score is a good index of direct genetic influence on conduct and ADHD-related symptoms across development, with minimal bias from rGE, although the polygenic score predicted less variance in CU traits. Post-hoc analyses showed some indirect genetic effects acting on a common factor indexing stability of conduct problems across time and contexts.

Decline in positive future orientations among adolescents during covid-19: The role of socioeconomic status, parental support, and sense of control

INTRODUCTION

Before coronavirus disease (covid-19), adolescents from a lower socioeconomic status (SES) background tend to have less positive future orientations, receive less parental support, and have a weaker sense of control than adolescents from a higher SES background. The covid-19 pandemic has potentially increased the socioeconomic gaps in positive future orientations, parental support, and sense of control among adolescents who are currently in vocational education. As societies are aiming to return back to precovid norms, certain groups of adolescents might require more attention for ensuring a stable future than others.

METHODS

Two-wave questionnaire data of 689 Dutch adolescents (Mage  = 17.8; 56% female) from the Youth Got Talent project was analyzed. Latent Change Score models are a relatively novel approach that allows two-wave data to estimate associations between precovid predictor variables and changes in outcome variables from before to during covid-19 (e.g., SES, positive future orientations, parental support, and sense of control). Analyses were preregistered.

RESULTS

The precovid socioeconomic differences in adolescent's positive future orientations and sense of control remained stable during covid-19, whereas the socioeconomic difference in parental support decreased during covid-19. A decline in parental support, an increase in sense of control, and more covid-19 hardships were associated with an increase in future orientations.

CONCLUSION

The covid-19 situation has not substantially increased socioeconomic differences in positive future orientations and sense of control, but did decrease socioeconomic differences in parental support among adolescents. Short-term policies should aim to facilitate parental support and positive future orientations to all adolescents who experienced a decline, while also long-term focusing on the more consistent socioeconomic difference in sense of control among adolescents.

Longitudinal associations of neighbourhood environmental exposures with mental health problems during adolescence: Findings from the TRAILS study

BACKGROUND

Cross-sectional studies have found associations between neighbourhood environments and adolescent mental health, but the few longitudinal studies mainly focused on single exposure-based analyses and rarely assessed the mental health associations with environmental changes.

OBJECTIVES

We assessed longitudinal within- and between-person associations of multiple neighbourhood time-varying physical and social environmental exposures with externalising and internalising problems throughout adolescence.

METHODS

We used four waves of TRAILS (Tracking Adolescents' Individual Lives Survey) data on self-reported externalising and internalising problems at ages 11, 13, 16, and 19 among 2,135 adolescents in the Netherlands. We measured residence-based time-varying environmental exposures, including green space, air pollution (fine particulate matter (PM2.5)), noise, deprivation, and social fragmentation. We fitted random-effect within-between regression models to assess the environment-mental health associations.

RESULTS

At the within-person level, an interquartile range (IQR) increase in PM2.5 was associated with a 0.056 IQR (95% CI: 0.014, 0.099) increase in externalising problems, while an IQR social fragmentation increase was associated with a 0.010 IQR (95% CI: -0.020, -0.001) decrease in externalising problems. Stratification revealed that the association with PM2.5 was significant only for movers, whereas the association with social fragmentation remained only for non-movers. At the between-person level, an IQR higher noise was associated with a 0.100 IQR (95% CI: 0.031, 0.169) more externalising problems, while higher deprivation (β = 0.080; 95% CI: 0.022, 0.138) and lower fragmentation (β = -0.073; 95% CI: -0.128, -0.018) were associated with more internalising problems. We also observed positive between-person associations between PM2.5, noise, and internalising problems, but both associations were unstable due to the high PM2.5-noise correlation. Further, we observed a non-linear between-person PM2.5-externalising problems association turning positive when PM2.5 > 15 µg/m3. Null associations were found for green space.

CONCLUSION

Our findings suggested that air pollution, noise, and neighbourhood deprivation are risk factors for adolescent mental health. Not only exposure levels but also exposure changes matter for adolescent mental health.

ADHD Symptoms and Educational Level in Adolescents: The Role of the Family, Teachers, and Peers

Few studies have explored the contribution of family and school factors to the association between ADHD symptoms and lower education. Possibly, having more ADHD symptoms contributes to poorer family functioning and less social support, and consequently a lower educational level (i.e., mediation). Moreover, the negative effects of ADHD symptoms on education may be stronger for adolescents with poorer family functioning or less social support (i.e., interaction). Using data of the Dutch TRAILS Study (N = 2,229), we evaluated associations between ADHD symptoms around age 11 and educational level around age 14, as well as between ADHD symptoms around age 14 and 16 years and subsequent changes in educational level around age 16 and 19, respectively. We assessed the potential mediating role of family functioning, and social support by teachers and classmates, all measured around ages 11, 14, and 16, while additionally evaluating interactions between ADHD symptoms and these hypothesized mediators. ADHD symptoms were associated with poorer family functioning, less social support by teachers and classmates, and lower education throughout adolescence. No conclusive evidence of mediation was found, because unique associations between family functioning and social support by teachers and classmates and education were largely absent. Furthermore, we found no interactions between ADHD symptoms and family functioning and social support by teachers and classmates. Although social support by teachers and classmates and good family functioning may benefit the wellbeing and mental health of adolescents with high levels of ADHD symptoms, they will not necessarily improve their educational attainment.

Self-reported emotional and behavioral problems among school-going adolescents in Nepal-A cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Studies on self-reported emotional and behavioral problems (EBPs) among adolescents are still sparse in many low- and middle-income countries. In Nepal, no such studies have been performed on a larger scale, and little is known about self-reported EBPs in the adolescent population.

METHODS

This cross-sectional, school-based study on EBPs included 1904 adolescents aged 11-18 years, enrolled in government and private schools located in 16 districts in Nepal. The Nepali version of the Youth Self Report form was used to assess self-reported EBPs, and the Teacher Report Form was used to assess academic performance. Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used for gender comparisons on adolescents' EBPs and on academic competence. Multiple regression analysis was done to explore correlates of self-reported EBPs.

RESULTS

The overall prevalence of self-reported EBPs was 14.2%; 15.6% in boys and 12.9% in girls. The mean Total Problems score was 39.27 (standard deviation = 24.16); no gender differences were observed. Boys scored higher on Externalizing Problems and girls scored higher on Internalizing Problems. The effect sizes for gender comparisons were small with Hedges' g ranging from -0.29 to 0.28. Physical illness and negative/traumatic life events were positively correlated with self-reported EBPs, whereas academic performance was negatively correlated. However, the effect sizes were small (η2 < 0.02).

CONCLUSION

This study helps to narrow the knowledge gap on the prevalence, magnitude, and types of self-reported EBPs in Nepali adolescents. It demonstrated an association between self-reported EBPs and academic performance and linked self-reported EBPs to other factors such as negative/traumatic life events and physical illness. The findings might assist health authorities in the planning of mental health services and may also provide valuable background information to clinicians dealing with adolescent mental health problems.