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Chawla H, Anand P, Garg K, Bhagat N, Varmani SG, Bansal T, McBain AJ, Marwah RG. A comprehensive review of microbial contamination in the indoor environment: sources, sampling, health risks, and mitigation strategies. Front Public Health 2023; 11:1285393. [PMID: 38074709 PMCID: PMC10701447 DOI: 10.3389/fpubh.2023.1285393] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 10/25/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The quality of the indoor environment significantly impacts human health and productivity, especially given the amount of time individuals spend indoors globally. While chemical pollutants have been a focus of indoor air quality research, microbial contaminants also have a significant bearing on indoor air quality. This review provides a comprehensive overview of microbial contamination in built environments, covering sources, sampling strategies, and analysis methods. Microbial contamination has various origins, including human occupants, pets, and the outdoor environment. Sampling strategies for indoor microbial contamination include air, surface, and dust sampling, and various analysis methods are used to assess microbial diversity and complexity in indoor environments. The review also discusses the health risks associated with microbial contaminants, including bacteria, fungi, and viruses, and their products in indoor air, highlighting the need for evidence-based studies that can relate to specific health conditions. The importance of indoor air quality is emphasized from the perspective of the COVID-19 pandemic. A section of the review highlights the knowledge gap related to microbiological burden in indoor environments in developing countries, using India as a representative example. Finally, potential mitigation strategies to improve microbiological indoor air quality are briefly reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitikk Chawla
- Institute for Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Goethe University Frankfurt, Frankfurt, Germany
| | - Purnima Anand
- Department of Microbiology, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Kritika Garg
- Department of Biosciences and Bioengineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee, India
| | - Neeru Bhagat
- Department of Microbiology, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Shivani G. Varmani
- Department of Biomedical Science, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
| | - Tanu Bansal
- Department of Biochemistry, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, New Delhi, India
| | - Andrew J. McBain
- School of Health Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, The University of Manchester, Manchester, United Kingdom
| | - Ruchi Gulati Marwah
- Department of Microbiology, Bhaskaracharya College of Applied Sciences, University of Delhi, New Delhi, India
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Yang YJ, Liu Y, Liu DD, Guo WZ, Wang LX, Wang XJ, Lv HX, Yang Y, Liu Q, Tian CG. Development of a flow cytometry-based plating-free system for strain engineering in industrial fungi. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2021; 106:713-727. [PMID: 34921331 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-021-11733-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Recent technical advances regarding filamentous fungi have accelerated the engineering of fungal-based production and benefited basic science. However, challenges still remain and limit the speed of fungal applications. For example, high-throughput technologies tailored to filamentous fungi are not yet commonly available for genetic modification. The currently used fungal genetic manipulations are time-consuming and laborious. Here, we developed a flow cytometry-based plating-free system to directly screen and isolate the transformed protoplasts in industrial fungi Myceliophthora thermophila and Aspergillus niger. This system combines genetic engineering via the 2A peptide and the CRISPR-Cas9 system, strain screening by flow cytometry, and direct sorting of colonies for deep-well-plate incubation and phenotypic analysis while avoiding culturing transformed protoplasts in plates, colony picking, conidiation, and cultivation. As a proof of concept, we successfully applied this system to generate the glucoamylase-hyperproducing strains MtYM6 and AnLM3 in M. thermophila and A. niger, respectively. Notably, the protein secretion level and enzyme activities in MtYM6 were 17.3- and 25.1-fold higher than in the host strain. Overall, these findings suggest that the flow cytometry-based plating-free system can be a convenient and efficient tool for strain engineering in fungal biotechnology. We expect this system to facilitate improvements of filamentous fungal strains for industrial applications. KEY POINTS: • Development of a flow cytometry-based plating-free (FCPF) system is presented. • Application of FCPF system in M. thermophila and A. niger for glucoamylase platform. • Hyper-produced strains MtYM6 and AnLM3 for glucoamylase production are generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jing Yang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Yin Liu
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Dan-Dan Liu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology and MOA Key Laboratory of Soil Microbiology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Wen-Zhu Guo
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Li-Xian Wang
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China
| | - Xing-Ji Wang
- Longda Biotechnology Inc, 276400, Linyi, Shandong, China
| | - He-Xin Lv
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Yang Yang
- College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science & Technology, Tianjin, 300457, China
| | - Qian Liu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China.
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China.
| | - Chao-Guang Tian
- Key Laboratory of Systems Microbial Biotechnology, Tianjin Institute of Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Tianjin, 300308, China.
- National Technology Innovation Center of Synthetic Biology, Tianjin, 300308, China.
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Nunes MC, Graça C, Vlaisavljević S, Tenreiro A, Sousa I, Raymundo A. Microalgal cell disruption: Effect on the bioactivity and rheology of wheat bread. ALGAL RES 2020. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2019.101749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Lian H, He S, Chen C, Yan X. Flow Cytometric Analysis of Nanoscale Biological Particles and Organelles. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY (PALO ALTO, CALIF.) 2019; 12:389-409. [PMID: 30978294 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anchem-061318-115042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Analysis of nanoscale biological particles and organelles (BPOs) at the single-particle level is fundamental to the in-depth study of biosciences. Flow cytometry is a versatile technique that has been well-established for the analysis of eukaryotic cells, yet conventional flow cytometry can hardly meet the sensitivity requirement for nanoscale BPOs. Recent advances in high-sensitivity flow cytometry have made it possible to conduct precise, sensitive, and specific analyses of nanoscale BPOs, with exceptional benefits for bacteria, mitochondria, viruses, and extracellular vesicles (EVs). In this article, we discuss the significance, challenges, and efforts toward sensitivity enhancement, followed by the introduction of flow cytometric analysis of nanoscale BPOs. With the development of the nano-flow cytometer that can detect single viruses and EVs as small as 27 nm and 40 nm, respectively, more exciting applications in nanoscale BPO analysis can be envisioned.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Chaoxiang Chen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation; Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province; Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Material; and Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China;
| | - Xiaomei Yan
- MOE Key Laboratory of Spectrochemical Analysis and Instrumentation; Key Laboratory for Chemical Biology of Fujian Province; Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemistry for Energy Material; and Department of Chemical Biology, College of Chemistry and Engineering, Xiamen University, Xiamen, Fujian 361005, China;
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Safford HR, Bischel HN. Flow cytometry applications in water treatment, distribution, and reuse: A review. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 151:110-133. [PMID: 30594081 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2018.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2018] [Revised: 11/30/2018] [Accepted: 12/01/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Ensuring safe and effective water treatment, distribution, and reuse requires robust methods for characterizing and monitoring waterborne microbes. Methods widely used today can be limited by low sensitivity, high labor and time requirements, susceptibility to interference from inhibitory compounds, and difficulties in distinguishing between viable and non-viable cells. Flow cytometry (FCM) has recently gained attention as an alternative approach that can overcome many of these challenges. This article critically and systematically reviews for the first time recent literature on applications of FCM in water treatment, distribution, and reuse. In the review, we identify and examine nearly 300 studies published from 2000 to 2018 that illustrate the benefits and challenges of using FCM for assessing source-water quality and impacts of treatment-plant discharge on receiving waters, wastewater treatment, drinking water treatment, and drinking water distribution. We then discuss options for combining FCM with other indicators of water quality and address several topics that cut across nearly all applications reviewed. Finally, we identify priority areas in which more work is needed to realize the full potential of this approach. These include optimizing protocols for FCM-based analysis of waterborne viruses, optimizing protocols for specifically detecting target pathogens, automating sample handling and preparation to enable real-time FCM, developing computational tools to assist data analysis, and improving standards for instrumentation, methods, and reporting requirements. We conclude that while more work is needed to realize the full potential of FCM in water treatment, distribution, and reuse, substantial progress has been made over the past two decades. There is now a sufficiently large body of research documenting successful applications of FCM that the approach could reasonably and realistically see widespread adoption as a routine method for water quality assessment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah R Safford
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, 480 Bainer Hall Drive, 95616, Davis, CA, United States
| | - Heather N Bischel
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of California Davis, 2001 Ghausi Hall, 480 Bainer Hall Drive, 95616, Davis, CA, United States.
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Ehsani E, Hernandez-Sanabria E, Kerckhof FM, Props R, Vilchez-Vargas R, Vital M, Pieper DH, Boon N. Initial evenness determines diversity and cell density dynamics in synthetic microbial ecosystems. Sci Rep 2018; 8:340. [PMID: 29321640 PMCID: PMC5762898 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18668-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The effect of initial evenness on the temporal trajectory of synthetic communities in comprehensive, low-volume microcosm studies remains unknown. We used flow cytometric fingerprinting and 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing to assess the impact of time on community structure in one hundred synthetic ecosystems of fixed richness but varying initial evenness. Both methodologies uncovered a similar reduction in diversity within synthetic communities of medium and high initial evenness classes. However, the results of amplicon sequencing showed that there were no significant differences between and within the communities in all evenness groups at the end of the experiment. Nevertheless, initial evenness significantly impacted the cell density of the community after five medium transfers. Highly even communities retained the highest cell densities at the end of the experiment. The relative abundances of individual species could be associated to particular evenness groups, suggesting that their presence was dependent on the initial evenness of the synthetic community. Our results reveal that using synthetic communities for testing ecological hypotheses requires prior assessment of initial evenness, as it impacts temporal dynamics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elham Ehsani
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | | | | | - Ruben Props
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Ramiro Vilchez-Vargas
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Marius Vital
- Microbial Interactions and Processes Research Group, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstr. 7, Braunschweig, 38124, Germany
| | - Dietmar H Pieper
- Microbial Interactions and Processes Research Group, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstr. 7, Braunschweig, 38124, Germany
| | - Nico Boon
- Center for Microbial Ecology and Technology (CMET), Coupure Links 653, 9000, Ghent, Belgium.
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Khalil JYB, Langlois T, Andreani J, Sorraing JM, Raoult D, Camoin L, La Scola B. Flow Cytometry Sorting to Separate Viable Giant Viruses from Amoeba Co-culture Supernatants. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2017; 6:202. [PMID: 28111619 PMCID: PMC5216029 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2016.00202] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/15/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Flow cytometry has contributed to virology but has faced many drawbacks concerning detection limits, due to the small size of viral particles. Nonetheless, giant viruses changed many concepts in the world of viruses, as a result of their size and hence opened up the possibility of using flow cytometry to study them. Recently, we developed a high throughput isolation of viruses using flow cytometry and protozoa co-culture. Consequently, isolating a viral mixture in the same sample became more common. Nevertheless, when one virus multiplies faster than others in the mixture, it is impossible to obtain a pure culture of the minority population. Here, we describe a robust sorting system, which can separate viable giant virus mixtures from supernatants. We tested three flow cytometry sorters by sorting artificial mixtures. Purity control was assessed by electron microscopy and molecular biology. As proof of concept, we applied the sorting system to a co-culture supernatant taken from a sample containing a viral mixture that we couldn't separate using end point dilution. In addition to isolating the quick-growing Mimivirus, we sorted and re-cultured a new, slow-growing virus, which we named “Cedratvirus.” The sorting assay presented in this paper is a powerful and versatile tool for separating viral populations from amoeba co-cultures and adding value to the new field of flow virometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques Y B Khalil
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, UM63 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique 7278 IRD 198 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1095, Facultés de Médecine et de PharmacieMarseille, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de MarseilleMarseille, France
| | - Thierry Langlois
- Becton Dickinson (Life Sciences-Biosciences) 94523 Rungis Cedex, France
| | - Julien Andreani
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, UM63 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique 7278 IRD 198 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1095, Facultés de Médecine et de PharmacieMarseille, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de MarseilleMarseille, France
| | | | - Didier Raoult
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, UM63 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique 7278 IRD 198 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1095, Facultés de Médecine et de PharmacieMarseille, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de MarseilleMarseille, France
| | - Laurence Camoin
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, UM63 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique 7278 IRD 198 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1095, Facultés de Médecine et de PharmacieMarseille, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de MarseilleMarseille, France
| | - Bernard La Scola
- Unité de Recherche sur les Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Emergentes, UM63 Centre national de la Recherche Scientifique 7278 IRD 198 Institut National de la Santé et de la Recherche Médicale U1095, Facultés de Médecine et de PharmacieMarseille, France; Institut Hospitalo-Universitaire Méditerranée Infection, Pôle des Maladies Infectieuses et Tropicales Clinique et Biologique, Fédération de Bactériologie-Hygiène-Virologie, Centre Hospitalo-Universitaire Timone, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de MarseilleMarseille, France
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Abstract
Environmental studies are primarily done by culturing isolated microorganisms or by amplifying and sequencing conserved genes. Difficulties understanding the complexity of large numbers of various microorganisms in an environment led to the development of techniques to enrich specific microorganisms for upstream analysis, ultimately leading to single-cell isolation and analyses. We discuss the significance of single-cell technologies in omics studies with focus on metagenomics and metatranscriptomics. We propose that by reducing sample heterogeneity using single-cell genomics, metaomic studies can be simplified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimantas Kodzius
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Computer, Electrical and Mathematical Sciences and Engineering Division (CEMSE), Saudi Arabia.
| | - Takashi Gojobori
- King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Computational Bioscience Research Center (CBRC), Biological and Environmental Sciences and Engineering Division (BESE), Saudi Arabia.
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Abzazou T, Salvadó H, Bruguera-Casamada C, Simón P, Lardín C, Araujo RM. Assessment of total bacterial cells in extended aeration activated sludge plants using flow cytometry as a microbial monitoring tool. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 22:11446-11455. [PMID: 25813641 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-015-4372-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Accepted: 03/12/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The extended aeration activated sludge (EAAS) process is one of the most applied biological processes in small towns. Here, we study the abundance and viability of total bacterial cells in two wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) operating with an EAAS process. We use flow cytometry (FCM) combined with SYTO13 and propidium iodide (PI) dyes as a rapid, easy, reliable and accurate microbial monitoring tool. A disaggregation procedure with an ultrasonic bath was designed to detach total bacterial cells from activated sludge flocs for subsequent FCM analysis. This procedure permitted the recovery of total bacterial cells from sludge flocs without affecting bacterial viability, as indicated by bacterial strain controls. Since FCM is a multi-parameter technique, it was possible to determine total bacterial abundance and their viability in the activated sludge. As a comparative method, epifluorescence microscopy was also used to quantify total bacterial cells; both methods produced similar results. The FCM analysis revealed relative microbial stability in both the WWTPs. The total bacterial abundance quantified by FCM in the two plants studied was 1.02-6.23 × 10(11) cells L(-1) with 70-72% viability, one logarithm less than that reported in the literature for WWTPs using the conventional activated sludge process. This can be explained by the difference in the operational parameters between the conventional plant and EAAS, mainly the organic loading rate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tarik Abzazou
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Biology, University of Barcelona, Av. Diagonal 645, 08028, Barcelona, Spain,
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Nikel PI, Silva-Rocha R, Benedetti I, de Lorenzo V. The private life of environmental bacteria: pollutant biodegradation at the single cell level. Environ Microbiol 2014; 16:628-42. [DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.12360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Revised: 11/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/10/2013] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pablo Iván Nikel
- Systems and Synthetic Biology Program; Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC); Madrid 28049 Spain
| | - Rafael Silva-Rocha
- Systems and Synthetic Biology Program; Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC); Madrid 28049 Spain
| | - Ilaria Benedetti
- Systems and Synthetic Biology Program; Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC); Madrid 28049 Spain
| | - Víctor de Lorenzo
- Systems and Synthetic Biology Program; Centro Nacional de Biotecnología (CNB-CSIC); Madrid 28049 Spain
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Koyama S, Konishi MA, Ohta Y, Miwa T, Hatada Y, Toyofuku T, Maruyama T, Nogi Y, Kato C, Tsubouchi T. Attachment and detachment of living microorganisms using a potential-controlled electrode. MARINE BIOTECHNOLOGY (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2013; 15:461-75. [PMID: 23420537 PMCID: PMC3695320 DOI: 10.1007/s10126-013-9495-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Accepted: 02/03/2013] [Indexed: 05/16/2023]
Abstract
We developed an electrical modulation method for attachment and detachment of microorganisms. Living microorganisms suspended in non-nutritive media such as PBS⁻ and artificial seawater were attracted by and selectively attached to indium tin oxide (ITO)/glass electrode regions to which a negative potential was applied. The microorganisms suspended in LB medium and glucose solution were not attracted to the ITO electrode. Dead microorganisms were not attracted to the ITO electrode. The living microorganisms were retrieved after detachment from the ITO electrode by application of a high-frequency triangular wave potential. When we applied this method to separate microorganisms from deep-sea sediment, bacteria belonging to 19 phyla and 23 classes were collected without undesirable high molecular weight contaminants such as humic acids. At the phylum and class level, respectively, 95 and 87 % of the phylotypes among electrically retrieved bacteria were common to the gene clones from the direct sediment DNA extraction. This technique is a novel useful method to prepare bacterial cells in a single population or a community for metagenomic analyses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sumihiro Koyama
- Institute of Biogeosciences, Japan Agency for Marine-Earth Science and Technology, 2-15 Natsushima-cho, Yokosuka, Kanagawa 237-0061, Japan.
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Watts BR, Zhang Z, Xu CQ, Cao X, Lin M. A method for detecting forward scattering signals on-chip with a photonic-microfluidic integrated device. BIOMEDICAL OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 4:1051-60. [PMID: 23847731 PMCID: PMC3704087 DOI: 10.1364/boe.4.001051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Revised: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 04/16/2013] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
A photonic integrated microfluidic device is demonstrated to perform optical excitation and forward scatter collection all on-chip in a planar format. Integrated on-chip optics formed a tailored beam geometry for optimal excitation of particles while a special design modification allowed for on-chip forward collection with the beam shaping capabilities. A notch was placed in the lens system that caused a dark spot on the facet of a collection waveguide while not affecting the beam geometry at the point of interrogation. The modified device with the ability to form a 10 μm beam geometry was demonstrated to detect the forward scatter from blank 5 μm diameter polystyrene beads. Free-space collection of side scatter signals was performed simultaneously with the on-chip collection and the designs demonstrated and enhanced SNR while the reliability of detection was determined to be appropriate for many applications. Excellent performance was confirmed via a false positive rate of 0.4%, a missed events rate of 6.8%, and a coincident rate of 96.3% as determined between simultaneously performed free-space and on-chip detection schemes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R. Watts
- Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Zhiyi Zhang
- Institute of Microstructural Science, National Research Council of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6, Canada
| | - Chang-Qing Xu
- Department of Engineering Physics, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario L8S 4L7, Canada
| | - Xudong Cao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario K1N 6N5, Canada
| | - Min Lin
- Ottawa Laboratory Fallowfield, Canadian Food Inspection Agency, Ottawa, Ontario, K2H 8P9, Canada
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Gudo ES, Prista A, Jani IV. Impact of asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia on the imunohematological indices among school children and adolescents in a rural area highly endemic for malaria in southern Mozambique. BMC Infect Dis 2013; 13:244. [PMID: 23710648 PMCID: PMC3765874 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-13-244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2012] [Accepted: 05/06/2013] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Asymptomatic Plasmodium falciparum parasitemia (APFP) has been reported to be highly prevalent in Sub-Saharan Africa, a region heavily burdened by malaria, yet, the impact of APFP on the immunological reference values have not yet been established. This study was aimed at i) determine the prevalence of APFP in children and adolescents living in a region highly endemic for malaria in southern Mozambique and its impact on the immuno-hematological indices and ii) determine the factors independently associated with APFP. METHODS A cross sectional study was conducted in a rural area highly endemic for Malaria in southern Mozambique during the dry season. Apparently healthy children and adolescents were selected for the study. RESULTS Blood samples were collected from 348 participants. Plasmodium falciparum was detected in 56.5% (194/343) of study subjects. APFP was more frequent in males and was associated with lower values of hemoglobin and platelets measurements. Parasitized and not parasitized individuals were similar in terms of lymphocyte counts, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells counts. Platelet count was the parameter with strongest association with APFP (OR: 0.991, p= 0.000) in children and its performance in guiding clinical suspicion was moderate (AUC: 0.70, p=0.000). Contrarily, in adolescents, the predictive value of platelets counts was low (AUC: 0.55). CONCLUSION Overall, our finding demonstrated that APFP is highly prevalent in regions endemic for malaria in southern Mozambique and was associated with lower hematological parameters but unaltered lymphocyte counts, CD4+ and CD8+ T cells counts. Platelets count was of moderate performance in guiding clinical suspicion of APFP in children but not in adolescents.
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Blainey PC. The future is now: single-cell genomics of bacteria and archaea. FEMS Microbiol Rev 2013; 37:407-27. [PMID: 23298390 PMCID: PMC3878092 DOI: 10.1111/1574-6976.12015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2012] [Revised: 11/28/2012] [Accepted: 12/20/2012] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Interest in the expanding catalog of uncultivated microorganisms, increasing recognition of heterogeneity among seemingly similar cells, and technological advances in whole-genome amplification and single-cell manipulation are driving considerable progress in single-cell genomics. Here, the spectrum of applications for single-cell genomics, key advances in the development of the field, and emerging methodology for single-cell genome sequencing are reviewed by example with attention to the diversity of approaches and their unique characteristics. Experimental strategies transcending specific methodologies are identified and organized as a road map for future studies in single-cell genomics of environmental microorganisms. Over the next decade, increasingly powerful tools for single-cell genome sequencing and analysis will play key roles in accessing the genomes of uncultivated organisms, determining the basis of microbial community functions, and fundamental aspects of microbial population biology.
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16
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Cell sorting enriches Escherichia coli mutants that rely on peptidoglycan endopeptidases to suppress highly aberrant morphologies. J Bacteriol 2012; 195:855-66. [PMID: 23243305 DOI: 10.1128/jb.01450-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial morphology imparts physiological advantages to cells in different environments and, judging by the fidelity with which shape is passed to daughter cells, is a tightly regulated characteristic. Surprisingly, only in the past 10 to 15 years has significant headway been made in identifying the mechanisms by which cells create and maintain particular shapes. One reason for this is that the relevant discoveries have relied heavily on the arduous, somewhat subjective process of manual microscopy. Here, we show that flow cytometry, coupled with the sorting capability of fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), can detect, quantify, and enrich bacteria with morphological alterations. The light scattering properties of several highly aberrant morphological mutants of Escherichia coli were characterized by flow cytometry. Cells from a region that overlapped the distribution of normal rod-shaped cells were collected by FACS and reincubated. After 4 to 15 iterations of this enrichment process, suppressor mutants were isolated that returned almost all the population to a near-normal shape. Suppressors were successfully isolated from strains lacking three or four penicillin binding proteins (PBPs) but not from a mutant lacking a total of seven PBPs. The peptidoglycan endopeptidase, AmpH, was identified as being important for the suppression process, as was a related endopeptidase, MepA. The results validate the use of cell sorting as a means for studying bacterial morphology and identify at least one new class of enzymes required for the suppression of cell shape defects.
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17
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Anaerobic high-throughput cultivation method for isolation of thermophiles using biomass-derived substrates. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 908:153-68. [PMID: 22843398 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-956-3_15] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Abstract
Flow cytometry (FCM) techniques have been developed for sorting mesophilic organisms, but the difficulty increases if the target microbes are thermophilic anaerobes. We demonstrate a reliable, high-throughput method of screening thermophilic anaerobic organisms using FCM and 96-well plates for growth on biomass-relevant substrates. The method was tested using the cellulolytic thermophiles Clostridium thermocellum (T(opt) = 55 °C), Caldicellulosiruptor obsidiansis (T(opt) = 78 °C) and the fermentative hyperthermophiles, Pyrococcus furiosus (T(opt) = 100 °C) and Thermotoga maritima (T(opt) = 80 °C). Multi-well plates were incubated at various temperatures for approximately 72-120 h and then tested for growth. Positive growth resulting from single cells sorted into individual wells containing an anaerobic medium was verified by OD(600). Depending on the growth substrate, up to 80 % of the wells contained viable cultures, which could be transferred to fresh media. This method was used to isolate thermophilic microbes from Rabbit Creek, Yellowstone National Park (YNP), Wyoming. Substrates for enrichment cultures including crystalline cellulose (Avicel), xylan (from Birchwood), pretreated switchgrass and Populus were used to cultivate organisms that may be of interest to lignocellulosic biofuel production.
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18
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Watts BR, Zhang Z, Xu CQ, Cao X, Lin M. A photonic-microfluidic integrated device for reliable fluorescence detection and counting. Electrophoresis 2012; 33:3236-44. [DOI: 10.1002/elps.201200311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2012] [Revised: 06/08/2012] [Accepted: 07/01/2012] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Benjamin R. Watts
- Department of Engineering Physics; McMaster University; Hamilton; Ontario; Canada
| | - Zhiyi Zhang
- Institute for Microstructural Sciences; National Research Council of Canada; Ottawa; Ontario; Canada
| | - Chang Qing Xu
- Department of Engineering Physics; McMaster University; Hamilton; Ontario; Canada
| | - Xudong Cao
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering; University of Ottawa; Ottawa; Ontario; Canada
| | - Min Lin
- Canadian Food Inspection Agency; Ottawa; Ontario; Canada
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19
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Ferrari BC, Winsley TJ, Bergquist PL, Van Dorst J. Flow cytometry in environmental microbiology: a rapid approach for the isolation of single cells for advanced molecular biology analysis. Methods Mol Biol 2012; 881:3-26. [PMID: 22639208 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-827-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
The isolation and subsequent characterization of microbial cells from within environmental samples is a difficult process. Flow cytometry and cell sorting, when combined with the application of fluorescent probes, have the capability for the detection and separation of diverse microbial populations from within complex mixtures. The isolation of single cells allows for downstream investigations towards system-level characterization of unknown Bacterial Phyla to occur. We describe here the combination of fluorescent in situ hybridization and cell sorting for the detection and isolation of Candidate Division TM7 bacteria from an enriched soil sample. The result is the isolation of rare cells suitable for advanced molecular analysis including whole genome amplification and high-throughput pyrosequencing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Belinda C Ferrari
- School of Biotechnology and Biomolecular Sciences, The University of New South Wales, Randwick, NSW, Australia.
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20
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Subach FV, Piatkevich KD, Verkhusha VV. Directed molecular evolution to design advanced red fluorescent proteins. Nat Methods 2011; 8:1019-26. [PMID: 22127219 PMCID: PMC4439098 DOI: 10.1038/nmeth.1776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Fluorescent proteins have become indispensable imaging tools for biomedical research. Continuing progress in fluorescence imaging, however, requires probes with additional colors and properties optimized for emerging techniques. Here we summarize strategies for development of red-shifted fluorescent proteins. We discuss possibilities for knowledge-based rational design based on the photochemistry of fluorescent proteins and the position of the chromophore in protein structure. We consider advances in library design by mutagenesis, protein expression systems and instrumentation for high-throughput screening that should yield improved fluorescent proteins for advanced imaging applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fedor V Subach
- Department of Anatomy and Structural Biology, and Gruss-Lipper Biophotonics Center, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, USA
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21
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Experimental methods and modeling techniques for description of cell population heterogeneity. Biotechnol Adv 2011; 29:575-99. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2011.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2010] [Revised: 02/04/2011] [Accepted: 03/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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22
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D'Hondt L, Höfte M, Van Bockstaele E, Leus L. Applications of flow cytometry in plant pathology for genome size determination, detection and physiological status. MOLECULAR PLANT PATHOLOGY 2011; 12:815-28. [PMID: 21726378 PMCID: PMC6640489 DOI: 10.1111/j.1364-3703.2011.00711.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/14/2023]
Abstract
Flow cytometers are probably the most multipurpose laboratory devices available. They can analyse a vast and very diverse range of cell parameters. This technique has left its mark on cancer, human immunodeficiency virus and immunology research, and is indispensable in routine clinical diagnostics. Flow cytometry (FCM) is also a well-known tool for the detection and physiological status assessment of microorganisms in drinking water, marine environments, food and fermentation processes. However, flow cytometers are seldom used in plant pathology, despite FCM's major advantages as both a detection method and a research tool. Potential uses of FCM include the characterization of genome sizes of fungal and oomycete populations, multiplexed pathogen detection and the monitoring of the viability, culturability and gene expression of plant pathogens, and many others. This review provides an overview of the history, advantages and disadvantages of FCM, and focuses on the current applications and future possibilities of FCM in plant pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liesbet D'Hondt
- Plant Sciences Unit, Institute for Agricultural and Fisheries Research, Caritasstraat 21, 9090 Melle, Belgium.
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23
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Horvath DJ, Li B, Casper T, Partida-Sanchez S, Hunstad DA, Hultgren SJ, Justice SS. Morphological plasticity promotes resistance to phagocyte killing of uropathogenic Escherichia coli. Microbes Infect 2011; 13:426-37. [PMID: 21182979 PMCID: PMC3071881 DOI: 10.1016/j.micinf.2010.12.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2010] [Revised: 11/17/2010] [Accepted: 12/11/2010] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Uropathogenic Escherichia coli proceed through a complex intracellular developmental pathway that includes multiple morphological changes. During intracellular growth within Toll-like receptor 4-activated superficial bladder epithelial cells, a subpopulation of uropathogenic E. coli initiates SulA-mediated filamentation. In this study, we directly investigated the role of bacterial morphology in the survival of uropathogenic E. coli from killing by phagocytes. We initially determined that both polymorphonuclear neutrophils and macrophages are recruited to murine bladder epithelium at times coincident with extracellular bacillary and filamentous uropathogenic E. coli. We further determined that bacillary uropathogenic E. coli were preferentially destroyed when mixed uropathogenic E. coli populations were challenged with cultured murine macrophages in vitro. Consistent with studies using elliptical-shaped polymers, the initial point of contact between the phagocyte and filamentous uropathogenic E. coli influenced the efficacy of internalization. These findings demonstrate that filamentous morphology provides a selective advantage for uropathogenic E. coli evasion of killing by phagocytes and defines a mechanism for the essential role for SulA during bacterial cystitis. Thus, morphological plasticity can be viewed as a distinct class of mechanism used by bacterial pathogens to subvert host immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dennis J. Horvath
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43205
| | - Birong Li
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43205
| | - Travis Casper
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43205
| | - Santiago Partida-Sanchez
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43205
- Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University School of Medicine, 460 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210-2210
| | - David A. Hunstad
- Department of Pediatrics Washington University School of Medicine, 660 Euclid Ave, St. Louis, Missouri, 63110
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 Euclid Ave, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Scott J. Hultgren
- Department of Molecular Microbiology, Washington University School of Medicine, 660 Euclid Ave, St. Louis, Missouri 63110
| | - Sheryl S. Justice
- Center for Microbial Pathogenesis, Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, Ohio 43205
- Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University School of Medicine, 460 West 12th Avenue, Columbus, Ohio, 43210-2210
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24
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Foladori P, Bruni L, Tamburini S, Ziglio G. Direct quantification of bacterial biomass in influent, effluent and activated sludge of wastewater treatment plants by using flow cytometry. WATER RESEARCH 2010; 44:3807-3818. [PMID: 20537673 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2010.04.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2009] [Revised: 02/25/2010] [Accepted: 04/26/2010] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
A rapid multi-step procedure, potentially amenable to automation, was proposed for quantifying viable and active bacterial cells, estimating their biovolume using flow cytometry (FCM) and to calculate their biomass within the main stages of a wastewater treatment plant: raw wastewater, settled wastewater, activated sludge and effluent. Fluorescent staining of bacteria using SYBR-Green I + Propidium Iodide (to discriminate cell integrity or permeabilisation) and BCECF-AM (to identify enzymatic activity) was applied to count bacterial cells by FCM. A recently developed specific procedure was applied to convert Forward Angle Light Scatter measured by FCM into the corresponding bacterial biovolume. This conversion permits the calculation of the viable and active bacterial biomass in wastewater, activated sludge and effluent, expressed as Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) or particulate Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD). Viable bacterial biomass represented only a small part of particulate COD in raw wastewater (4.8 +/- 2.4%), settled wastewater (10.7 +/- 3.1%), activated sludge (11.1 +/- 2.1%) and effluent (3.2 +/- 2.2%). Active bacterial biomass counted for a percentage of 30-47% of the viable bacterial biomass within the stages of the wastewater treatment plant.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Foladori
- Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Trento, via Mesiano, 77, 38050 Trento, Italy.
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25
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Kumar S. Engineering cytochrome P450 biocatalysts for biotechnology, medicine and bioremediation. Expert Opin Drug Metab Toxicol 2010; 6:115-31. [PMID: 20064075 DOI: 10.1517/17425250903431040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
IMPORTANCE OF THE FIELD Cytochrome P450 enzymes comprise a superfamily of heme monooxygenases that are of considerable interest for the: i) synthesis of novel drugs and drug metabolites; ii) targeted cancer gene therapy; iii) biosensor design; and iv) bioremediation. However, their applications are limited because cytochrome P450, especially mammalian P450 enzymes, show a low turnover rate and stability, and require a complex source of electrons through cytochrome P450 reductase and NADPH. AREAS COVERED IN THIS REVIEW In this review, we discuss the recent progress towards the use of P450 enzymes in a variety of the above-mentioned applications. We also present alternate and cost-effective ways to perform P450-mediated reaction, especially using peroxides. Furthermore, we expand upon the current progress in P450 engineering approaches describing several recent examples that are utilized to enhance heterologous expression, stability, catalytic efficiency and utilization of alternate oxidants. WHAT THE READER WILL GAIN The review provides a comprehensive knowledge in the design of P450 biocatalysts for potentially practical purposes. Finally, we provide a prospective on the future aspects of P450 engineering and its applications in biotechnology, medicine and bioremediation. TAKE HOME MESSAGE Because of its wide applications, academic and pharmaceutical researchers, environmental scientists and healthcare providers are expected to gain current knowledge and future prospects of the practical use of P450 biocatalysts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Santosh Kumar
- University of Missouri-Kansas City, School of Pharmacy, Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 2464 Charlotte St., Kansas City, MO 64108, USA.
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26
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Hammes F, Egli T. Cytometric methods for measuring bacteria in water: advantages, pitfalls and applications. Anal Bioanal Chem 2010; 397:1083-95. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-3646-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2010] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/08/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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27
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Single-cell analysis and isolation for microbiology and biotechnology: methods and applications. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2010; 86:1281-92. [DOI: 10.1007/s00253-010-2524-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Revised: 02/23/2010] [Accepted: 02/24/2010] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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28
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Hardiman E, Gibbs M, Reeves R, Bergquist P. Directed Evolution of a Thermophilic β-glucosidase for Cellulosic Bioethanol Production. Appl Biochem Biotechnol 2009; 161:301-12. [DOI: 10.1007/s12010-009-8794-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2009] [Accepted: 09/25/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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