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Alsaffar N, Fang Y, Walters E. Thymoquinone effect on the Dictyostelium discoideum model correlates with functional roles for glutathione S-transferases in eukaryotic proliferation, chemotaxis, and development. PLoS One 2023; 18:e0282399. [PMID: 36857392 PMCID: PMC9977050 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0282399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/02/2023] Open
Abstract
An increasing body of literature demonstrates the therapeutic relevance of polyphenols in eukaryotic cell and animal model studies. The phase II glutathione S-transferases (GST) show differential responses to thymoquinone, a major bioactive polyphenol constituent of the black seed, Nigella sativa. Beyond antioxidant defense, GSTs may act in non-enzymatic capacities to effect cell cycle, motility, and differentiation. Here, we report the impact of thymoquinone on the life cycle of the eukaryotic model Dictyostelium discoideum and accompanying profiles of its GST-alpha (DdGSTA) enzyme activity and isozyme expression. In silico molecular modeling revealed strong interaction(s) between thymoquinone and DdGSTA2 and DdGSTA3 isozymes that correlated with in vivo, dose-dependent inhibition of cell proliferation of amoebae at 24, 48, and 72hr. Similarly, cytosolic DdGST enzyme activity (CDNB activity) was also responsive to different thymoquinone concentrations. Thymoquinone generally reduced expression of DdGSTA2 and DdGSTA3 isozymes in proliferating cells, however differential expression of the isozymes occurred during starvation. Thymoquinone effectively reduced early-stage aggregation of starved amoeba, accompanied by increased reactive oxygen species and altered expression of tubulin and contact site A (gp80), which resulted in reduced morphogenesis and fruiting body formation. These observations reveal that thymoquinone can impact signaling mechanisms that regulate proliferation and development in D. discoideum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nida Alsaffar
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Yayin Fang
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, United States of America
| | - Eric Walters
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Howard University College of Medicine, Washington, DC, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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2
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Bezerra WADS, Tavares CP, Rocha CQD, Vaz Junior IDS, Michels PA, Costa Junior LM, Soares AMDS. Anonaine from Annona crassiflora inhibits glutathione S-transferase and improves cypermethrin activity on Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus (Canestrini, 1887). Exp Parasitol 2022; 243:108398. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2022.108398] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 09/26/2022] [Accepted: 09/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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3
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Yadav S, Ahmad F, Rathaur S. Antifilarial efficacy of andrographolide: Ex vivo studies on bovine filarial parasite Setaria cervi. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2022; 261:109442. [PMID: 35985449 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2022.109442] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2022] [Revised: 08/06/2022] [Accepted: 08/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Lymphatic filariasis caused by filarial nematode is an important disease leading to considerable morbidity throughout tropical countries. Even after specific elimination programs, the disease continue to spread in endemic countries. Thus newer therapeutic interventions are urgently needed to control the spread. In the present study, we have seen the effect of andrographolide (andro), a diterpenoid lactone from the leaves of Andrographis paniculata on filarial parasite Setaria cervi. There was time and concentration dependent decrease in motility and viability leading to death of parasite after 6 h of the exposure of andro. Andro showed potential antifilarial activity with an IC50 value of 24.80 μM assessed through MTT assay. There was concentration dependent decrease in the antioxidant enzymes activity and increase in proapoptotic markers after 5 h exposure of andro. Further, molecular docking analysis revealed that andro binds with filarial glutathione-S-transferase at glutathione (GSH) binding site and inhibiting enzyme activity competitively. Andro induced oxidative stress mediated apoptosis in parasites as evidenced by increase in the intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) and apoptotic markers.Therefore this study suggested that andro could be further explored as a new antifilarial drug.
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Affiliation(s)
- Smita Yadav
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India.
| | - Faiyaz Ahmad
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
| | - Sushma Rathaur
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Science, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, India
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4
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Ozelame KPC, Mattia MMC, Dedavid e Silva LA, Randall LM, Corvo I, Saporiti T, Seixas A, da Silva Vaz I, Alvarez G. Novel tick glutathione transferase inhibitors as promising acaricidal compounds. Ticks Tick Borne Dis 2022; 13:101970. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ttbdis.2022.101970] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
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5
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Zhang Y, Gao S, Zhang P, Sun H, Lu R, Yu R, Li Y, Zhang K, Li B. Response of xenobiotic biodegradation and metabolic genes in Tribolium castaneum following eugenol exposure. Mol Genet Genomics 2022; 297:801-815. [PMID: 35419714 DOI: 10.1007/s00438-022-01890-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Eugenol, a plant-derived component possessing small side effects, has an insecticidal activity to Tribolium castaneum; however, the underlying molecular mechanisms of eugenol acting on T. castaneum are currently unclear. Here, a nerve conduction carboxylesterase and a detoxifying glutathione S-transferase were significantly inhibited after eugenol exposure, resulting in the paralysis or death of beetles. Then, RNA-sequencing of eugenol-exposed and control samples identified 362 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), containing 206 up-regulated and 156 down-regulated genes. RNA-seq data were validated further by qRT-PCR. GO analysis revealed that DEGs were associated with 1308 GO terms of which the most enriched GO terms were catalytic activity, and integral component of membrane; KEGG pathway analysis showed that these DEGs were distributed in 151 different pathways, of which some pathways associated with metabolism of xenobiotics or drug were significantly enriched, which indicated that eugenol most likely disturbed the processes of metabolism, and detoxication. Moreover, several DEGs including Hexokinase type 2, Isocitrate dehydrogenase, and Cytochrome b-related protein, might participate in the respiratory metabolism of eugenol-exposed beetles. Some DEGs encoding CYP, UGT, GST, OBP, CSP, and ABC transporter were involved in the xenobiotic or drug metabolism pathway, which suggested that these genes of T. castaneum participated in the response to eugenol exposure. Additionally, TcOBPC11/ TcGSTs7, detected by qRT-PCR and RNA-interference against these genes, significantly increased the mortality of eugenol-treated T. castaneum, providing further evidence for the involvement of OBP/GST in eugenol metabolic detoxification in T. castaneum. These results aid eugenol insecticidal mechanisms and provide the basis of insect control.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yonglei Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Shanshan Gao
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, 455000, China
| | - Ping Zhang
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Haidi Sun
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, 455000, China
| | - Ruixue Lu
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, 455000, China
| | - Runnan Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Yanxiao Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China
| | - Kunpeng Zhang
- College of Biology and Food Engineering, Anyang Institute of Technology, Anyang, 455000, China.
| | - Bin Li
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory for Biodiversity and Biotechnology, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, 210023, China.
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Surowiak AK, Sowała M, Talma M, Groborz K, Balcerzak L, Lochyński S, Strub DJ. Cytotoxicity, early safety screening, and antimicrobial potential of minor oxime constituents of essential oils and aromatic extracts. Sci Rep 2022; 12:5319. [PMID: 35351944 PMCID: PMC8964709 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-09210-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Due to market and legislative expectations, there is a constant need to explore new potential antimicrobial agents for functional perfumery. In this study, we evaluated the antimicrobial activity of 53 low molecular oximes and the corresponding carbonyl compounds against Escherichia coli, Enterococcus hirae, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Aspergillus brasiliensis, Legionella pneumophila and Candida albicans. The most potent compound was α-isomethylionone oxime, which exhibited a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 18.75 µg/mL against E. hirae. The evaluation of the MICs for bacterial and fungal strains was performed for selected compounds, for example, the MIC of 2-phenylpropionaldehyde, cis-jasmone oxime, and trans-cinnamaldehyde measured against A. brasiliensis was 37.50 µg/mL. ADME-Tox (Absorption, Distribution, Metabolism, Excretion, and Toxicity) and 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-5-(3-carboxymethoxyphenyl)-2-(4-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium (MTS) cell viability assays were performed to assess the cytotoxicity of tested compounds. ADME-Tox indicated the safety and promising properties of selected compounds, which enables their usage as nontoxic supporting antibacterial agents. The results of the in vitro MTS assay were consistent with the ADME-Tox results. None of the compounds tested was toxic to Human Embryonic Kidney 293T (HEK293T) cells, with all cell viabilities exceeding 85%.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alicja Karolina Surowiak
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Marta Sowała
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Michał Talma
- Department of Bioorganic Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Groborz
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Lucyna Balcerzak
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Stanisław Lochyński
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland.,Institute of Cosmetology, Wroclaw College of Physiotherapy, T. Kościuszki 4, 50-038, Wrocław, Poland
| | - Daniel Jan Strub
- Department of Chemical Biology and Bioimaging, Faculty of Chemistry, Wrocław University of Science and Technology, Wyb. Wyspiańskiego 27, 50-370, Wrocław, Poland. .,Liquid Technologies SP. Z O.O., Gdańska 13, 50-344, Wrocław, Poland.
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7
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García-Gutiérrez P, Zubillaga RA, Téllez-Plancarte A, Flores-López R, Camarillo-Cadena M, Landa A. Discovery of a new non-substrate inhibitor of the 26.5 kDa glutathione transferase from Taenia solium by virtual screening. J Mol Graph Model 2020; 100:107707. [PMID: 32854022 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmgm.2020.107707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2020] [Revised: 07/09/2020] [Accepted: 07/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
The inappropriate use of anthelmintics, such as praziquantel and albendazole, has generated resistance and the need to develop new drugs. Glutathione transferases, GSTs, are bisubstrate dimeric enzymes that constitute the main detoxification mechanism against electrophiles, drugs and oxidative damage in Taenia solium. Therefore, GSTs are important targets for the development of new anthelmintics. In this work, we reported a successful virtual screen aimed at the identification of novel inhibitors of a 26.5 kDa GST from T. solium (TsGST26). We found that a compound, i7, able to inhibit selectively TsGST26 concerning human GSTs, showing a non-competitive inhibition mechanism towards substrate glutathione with a Ki (GSH) of 55.7 μM and mixed inhibition towards the electrophilic substrate 1-chloro-2,4-dinitrobenzene with a Ki (CDNB) of 8.64 μM. These results are in agreement with those of docking simulations, which showed i7 binds a site adjacent to the electrophilic site and furthest from the glutathione site.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ponciano García-Gutiérrez
- Departamento de Química. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, C.P 09340, Mexico.
| | - Rafael A Zubillaga
- Departamento de Química. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, C.P 09340, Mexico
| | - Alexandro Téllez-Plancarte
- Departamento de Química. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, C.P 09340, Mexico
| | - Roberto Flores-López
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P 04510, Mexico
| | - Menandro Camarillo-Cadena
- Departamento de Química. Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana-Iztapalapa, Ciudad de México, C.P 09340, Mexico
| | - Abraham Landa
- Departamento de Microbiología y Parasitología, Facultad de Medicina. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, C.P 04510, Mexico.
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Rehman A, Ullah R, Gupta D, Khan MH, Rehman L, Beg MA, Khan AU, Abidi S. Generation of oxidative stress and induction of apoptotic like events in curcumin and thymoquinone treated adult Fasciola gigantica worms. Exp Parasitol 2020; 209:107810. [DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2019.107810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2019] [Revised: 08/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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9
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Boniface PK, Elizabeth FI. An Insight into the Discovery of Potent Antifilarial Leads Against Lymphatic Filariasis. Curr Drug Targets 2019; 21:657-680. [PMID: 31800381 DOI: 10.2174/1389450120666191204152415] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2019] [Revised: 11/08/2019] [Accepted: 11/28/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Lymphatic filariasis is a neglected tropical disease caused by infection with filarial worms that are transmitted through mosquito bites. Globally, 120 million people are infected, with nearly 40 million people disfigured and disabled by complications such as severe swelling of the legs (elephantiasis) or scrotum (hydrocele). Current treatments (ivermectin, diethylcarbamazine) have limited effects on adult parasites and produce side effects; therefore, there is an urgent to search for new antifilarial agents. Numerous studies on the antifilarial activity of pure molecules have been reported accross the recent literature. The present study describes the current standings of potent antifilarial compounds against lymphatic filariasis. METHODS A literature search was conducted for naturally occurring and synthetic antifilarial compounds by referencing textbooks and scientific databases (SciFinder, PubMed, Science Direct, Wiley, ACS, SciELO, Google Scholar, and Springer, among others) from their inception until September 2019. RESULTS Numerous compounds have been reported to exhibit antifilarial acitivity in adult and microfilariae forms of the parasites responsible for lymphatic filariasis. In silico studies of active antifilarial compounds (ligands) showed molecular interactions over the protein targets (trehalose-6-phosphate phosphatase, thymidylate synthase, among others) of lymphatic filariasis, and supported the in vitro results. CONCLUSION With reference to in vitro antifilarial studies, there is evidence that natural and synthetic products can serve as basic scaffolds for the development of antifilarial agents. The optimization of the most potent antifilarial compounds can be further performed, followed by their in vivo studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pone Kamdem Boniface
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ferreira Igne Elizabeth
- Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Venkata Satya Chekkara SP, Ranjan Kumar P. Virtual screening and docking of lead like molecules against Glutathione-S-Transferase protein from Brugia malayi. Bioinformation 2019; 14:554-559. [PMID: 31223214 PMCID: PMC6563667 DOI: 10.6026/97320630014554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2018] [Revised: 12/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione-S-transferase(s) (GST) is an important chemotherapeutic target in lymphatic filarasis caused by Brugia malayi and Wuchereria
bancrofti. It has been playing an important role as major detoxification enzyme and help in intracellular transportation of hydrophobic
substrates. Therefore, it is of interest to screen GST from Brugia malayi with millions of known ligands at the ZINC database using
AUTODOCK for the identification of potential inhibitors with improved binding characteristics. We report two potent inhibitors
ZINC00179016 and ZINC08385519 which are the molecules of pyrrolidinedione and benzimidazole families respectively as potential
inhibitors of GST from Brugia malayi with suitable binding properties.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Priya Ranjan Kumar
- Department of Biotechnology, IMS Engineering College, Ghaziabad, Uttar Pradesh-201009, India
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11
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An appraisal of natural products active against parasitic nematodes of animals. Parasit Vectors 2019; 12:306. [PMID: 31208455 PMCID: PMC6580475 DOI: 10.1186/s13071-019-3537-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Accepted: 05/27/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Here, the scientific and patent literature on the activities of purified natural compounds has been reviewed, with the aim of assessing their suitability as anthelmintic drug discovery starting points. Only compounds described as active against parasitic nematodes of animals or against the model nematode Caenorhabditis elegans have been analysed. Scientific articles published since 2010 and patents granted from 2000, both inclusive, have been included in this analysis. The results show a scarcity of novel chemical structures, a limited follow-up of compounds disclosed before 2010 and a bias towards the screening of plant products, almost to the exclusion of other sources, when microbial extracts have, historically, provided most starting points for anti-infective drugs. All plant products published in this period were previously known, alerting to the high re-discovery rates of a limited number of chemical classes from this source. The most promising compounds described in the literature reviewed here, namely the linear nemadectin-derivatives, are novel and of bacterial origin. Patented but otherwise unpublished spiroketal structures also appear as interesting scaffolds for future development. The patent literature confirmed that it is possible to patent derivatives of previously known products, making them valid starting points for translational research.
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Youssefi MR, Tabari MA, Esfandiari A, Kazemi S, Moghadamnia AA, Sut S, Dall'Acqua S, Benelli G, Maggi F. Efficacy of Two Monoterpenoids, Carvacrol and Thymol, and Their Combinations against Eggs and Larvae of the West Nile Vector Culex pipiens. Molecules 2019; 24:molecules24101867. [PMID: 31096594 PMCID: PMC6572342 DOI: 10.3390/molecules24101867] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2019] [Revised: 04/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Insect vector control is facing the challenges of resistance development and environmental hazards caused by synthetic pesticides. This has led to a considerable market opportunity for botanical insecticides. In this scenario, our study investigated the potential of selected bioactive monoterpenoids, carvacrol and thymol, as safe and effective tools to control the West Nile vector Culex pipiens. Furthermore, the combined effect of thymol-carvacrol mixtures and their possible interactions were assessed. Methods: For determining larvicidal and ovicidal 50% lethal concentration (LC50), each monoterpenoid was tested at different concentrations (5–500 mg/L). Then, the fixed ratio method was used for evaluating their combinational efficacy. Results: Carvacrol was more toxic against larvae of Cx. pipiens, with a LC50 value of 14 mg/L, whereas thymol exhibited a LC50 value of 49 mg/L. Comparable trends of efficacy were observed when toxicity on Cx. pipiens eggs was investigated, with LC50 values of 7 and 13 mg/L for carvacrol and thymol, respectively. In combinational toxicity assays, the mixture thymol-carvacrol at 1:4 ratio achieved a synergistic effect against larvae of Cx. pipiens, whereas an additive effect was observed on eggs. Other ratios showed antagonistic effects. Conclusions: Overall, our findings pointed out that the 1:4 ratio of thymol-carvacrol blend can enhance the insecticidal efficacy on Cx. pipiens young instars and can be considered further as active ingredient for developing botanical insecticides to be used in mosquito control operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Reza Youssefi
- Department of Veterinary Parasitology, Babol-Branch, Islamic Azad University, Babol 484, Iran.
| | | | - Aryan Esfandiari
- Young Researchers and Elite Club, Babol Branch, Islamic Azad University, Babol 484, Iran.
| | - Sohrab Kazemi
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Center, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol 47176-47745, Iran.
| | - Ali Akbar Moghadamnia
- Cellular and Molecular Biology Research Center, Health Research Center, Babol University of Medical Sciences, Babol 47176-47745, Iran.
| | - Stefania Sut
- Department of Agronomy, Food, Natural Resources, Animals and Environment (DAFNAE), University of Padova, 35020 Legnaro, Italy.
| | - Stefano Dall'Acqua
- Department of Pharmaceutical and Pharmacological Sciences, University of Padova, 35139 Padova, Italy.
| | - Giovanni Benelli
- Department of Agriculture, Food and Environment, University of Pisa, via del Borghetto 80, 56124 Pisa, Italy.
| | - Filippo Maggi
- School of Pharmacy, University of Camerino, 62032 Camerino, Italy.
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In-vitro and in silico efficacy of isolated alkaloid compounds from Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. against bovine filarial parasite Setaria cervi: a drug discovery approach. J Parasit Dis 2018; 43:103-112. [PMID: 30956453 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-018-1064-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2018] [Accepted: 11/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Bioassay guided isolation from the leaves of Rauvolfia tetraphylla L. resulted in the isolation and characterization of three compounds of alkaloid in nature namely, Curan-17-oic acid (F1); 18, 19-Secoyohimban (F2) and Reserpiline (F3). Macrofilaricidal activity of three compounds was tested against bovine filarial parasite Setaria cervi using in vitro assays and supported by in silico docking analysis on glutathione-S-transferase (GST) enzyme of Wuchereria bancrofti. All the molecules inhibited GST enzyme to some extent 35.78%, 78.22% and 64.21% respectively. Results were supported by molecular docking studies, which showed docking scores for compound F1 (- 5.14), compound F2 (- 7.19) and compound F3 (- 7.2) on GST enzyme. Thus, in conclusion the in vitro and in silico studies indicated that isolated compounds are promising, inexpensive and widely available natural leads, which can be designed and developed into the macrofilaricidal drugs.
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Thongnum K, Chanthai S. Inhibitory Reactivity of Capsaicin with α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase Related to Antidiabetes using Molecular Docking and Quantum Calculation Methods. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2018. [DOI: 10.13005/ojc/340501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
This work aims to investigate the inhibitory activity of capsaicin, which is one of capsaicinoid compounds, on these enzymes using a molecular docking and quantum calculation. Acarbose, a commercial diabetes drug, was also investigated for comparison. The docking results revealed that acarbose yields better inhibition efficiency with binding free energy (ΔGbinding) of about -8.2 to -11.9 kcal/mol, and inhibition constant (Ki) of about 0.0002 to 0.4 µM, whereas capsaicin provided the ΔGbinding of -5.8 to -6.1 kcal/mol and Ki of 23.7 to 45.9 µM. The total binding energy (ΔEbinding) between each inhibitor and amino acids in active site of enzyme obtained from quantum calculation with MP2/6-31G(d,p) level is in agreement with the ΔGbinding, i.e. the ΔEbinding of acarbose was larger negative than that of capsaicin. The amino acids interacting with inhibitor as hydrogen bond mainly contribute to the total binding energy. Nevertheless, it could be concluded that capsaicinoids have high potential to be developed as an alternative drug for diabetes disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kultida Thongnum
- Materials Chemistry Research Center, Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
| | - Saksit Chanthai
- Materials Chemistry Research Center, Department of Chemistry and Center of Excellence for Innovation in Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Khon Kaen University, Khon Kaen 40002, Thailand
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15
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Liao M, Xiao JJ, Zhou LJ, Liu Y, Wu XW, Hua RM, Wang GR, Cao HQ. Insecticidal Activity of Melaleuca alternifolia Essential Oil and RNA-Seq Analysis of Sitophilus zeamais Transcriptome in Response to Oil Fumigation. PLoS One 2016; 11:e0167748. [PMID: 27936192 PMCID: PMC5147960 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0167748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The cereal weevil, Sitophilus zeamais is one of the most destructive pests of stored cereals worldwide. Frequent use of fumigants for managing stored-product insects has led to the development of resistance in insects. Essential oils from aromatic plants including the tea oil plant, Melaleuca alternifolia may provide environmentally friendly alternatives to currently used pest control agents. However, little is known about molecular events involved in stored-product insects in response to plant essential oil fumigation. RESULTS M. alternifolia essential oil was shown to possess the fumigant toxicity against S. zeamais. The constituent, terpinen-4-ol was the most effective compound for fumigant toxicity. M. alternifolia essential oil significantly inhibited the activity of three enzymes in S. zeamais, including two detoxifying enzymes, glutathione S-transferase (GST), and carboxylesterase (CarE), as well as a nerve conduction enzyme, acetylcholinesterase (AChE). Comparative transcriptome analysis of S. zeamais through RNA-Seq identified a total of 3,562 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), of which 2,836 and 726 were up-regulated and down-regulated in response to M. alternifolia essential oil fumigation, respectively. Based on gene ontology (GO) analysis, the majority of DEGs were involved in insecticide detoxification and mitochondrial function. Furthermore, an abundance of DEGs mapped into the metabolism pathway in the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathway database were associated with respiration and metabolism of xenobiotics, including cytochrome P450s, CarEs, GSTs, and ATP-binding cassette transporters (ABC transporters). Some DEGs mapped into the proteasome and phagosome pathway were found to be significantly enriched. These results led us to propose a model of insecticide action that M. alternifolia essential oil likely directly affects the hydrogen carrier to block the electron flow and interfere energy synthesis in mitochondrial respiratory chain. CONCLUSION This is the first study to perform a comparative transcriptome analysis of S. zeamais in response to M. alternifolia essential oil fumigation. Our results provide new insights into the insecticidal mechanism of M. alternifolia essential oil fumigation against S. zeamais and eventually contribute to the management of this important agricultural pest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Min Liao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Jin-Jing Xiao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Li-Jun Zhou
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
| | - Yang Liu
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Xiang-Wei Wu
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agri-Food Safety, Hefei, China
| | - Ri-Mao Hua
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agri-Food Safety, Hefei, China
| | - Gui-Rong Wang
- State Key Laboratory for Biology of Plant Diseases and Insect Pests, Institute of Plant Protection, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Hai-Qun Cao
- School of Plant Protection, Anhui Agricultural University, Hefei, China
- Provincial Key Laboratory for Agri-Food Safety, Hefei, China
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16
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Click inspired synthesis of triazole-linked vanillin glycoconjugates. Glycoconj J 2016; 34:61-70. [DOI: 10.1007/s10719-016-9729-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2016] [Revised: 08/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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The Role of Xenobiotic-Metabolizing Enzymes in Anthelmintic Deactivation and Resistance in Helminths. Trends Parasitol 2016; 32:481-491. [PMID: 26968642 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2016.02.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2016] [Revised: 02/03/2016] [Accepted: 02/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Xenobiotic-metabolizing enzymes (XMEs) modulate the biological activity and behavior of many drugs, including anthelmintics. The effects of anthelmintics can often be abolished by XMEs when the drugs are metabolized to an inefficient compound. XMEs therefore play a significant role in anthelmintic efficacy. Moreover, differences in XMEs between helminths are reflected by differences in anthelmintic metabolism between target species. Taking advantage of the newly sequenced genomes of many helminth species, progress in this field has been remarkable. The present review collects up to date information regarding the most important XMEs (phase I and phase II biotransformation enzymes; efflux transporters) in helminths. The participation of these XMEs in anthelmintic metabolism and their possible roles in drug resistance are evaluated.
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Espada M, Jones JT, Mota M. Characterization of glutathione S-transferases from the pine wood nematode, Bursaphelenchus xylophilus. NEMATOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1163/15685411-00002985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
We have previously identified two secreted glutathione S-transferases (GST) expressed in the pharyngeal gland cell of Bursaphelenchus xylophilus, which are upregulated post infection of the host. This study examines the functional role of GSTs in B. xylophilus biology. We analysed the expression profiles of all predicted GSTs in the genome and the results showed that they belong to kappa and cytosolic subfamilies and the majority are upregulated post infection of the host. A small percentage is potentially secreted and none is downregulated post infection of the host. One secreted protein was confirmed as a functional GST and is within a cluster that showed the highest expression fold change in infection. This enzyme has a protective activity that may involve host defences, namely in the presence of terpenoid compounds and peroxide products. These results suggest that GSTs secreted into the host participate in the detoxification of host-derived defence compounds and enable successful parasitism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margarida Espada
- NemaLab/ICAAM – Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais Mediterrânicas, Universidade de Évora, Núcleo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
- Cell and Molecular Sciences Group, The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
| | - John T. Jones
- Cell and Molecular Sciences Group, The James Hutton Institute, Invergowrie, Dundee DD2 5DA, UK
- School of Biology, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews KY16 9TZ, UK
| | - Manuel Mota
- NemaLab/ICAAM – Instituto de Ciências Agrárias e Ambientais Mediterrânicas, Universidade de Évora, Núcleo da Mitra, Ap. 94, 7002-554 Évora, Portugal
- Departamento de Ciências da Vida, Universidade Lusófona de Humanidades e Tecnologias, EPCV, C. Grande 376, 1749-024 Lisbon, Portugal
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Kalani K, Kushwaha V, Sharma P, Verma R, Srivastava M, Khan F, Murthy PK, Srivastava SK. In vitro, in silico and in vivo studies of ursolic acid as an anti-filarial agent. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111244. [PMID: 25375886 PMCID: PMC4222910 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2014] [Accepted: 09/21/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
As part of our drug discovery program for anti-filarial agents from Indian medicinal plants, leaves of Eucalyptus tereticornis were chemically investigated, which resulted in the isolation and characterization of an anti-filarial agent, ursolic acid (UA) as a major constituent. Antifilarial activity of UA against the human lymphatic filarial parasite Brugia malayi using in vitro and in vivo assays, and in silico docking search on glutathione-s-transferase (GST) parasitic enzyme were carried out. The UA was lethal to microfilariae (mf; LC100: 50; IC50: 8.84 µM) and female adult worms (LC100: 100; IC50: 35.36 µM) as observed by motility assay; it exerted 86% inhibition in MTT reduction potential of the adult parasites. The selectivity index (SI) of UA for the parasites was found safe. This was supported by the molecular docking studies, which showed adequate docking (LibDock) scores for UA (-8.6) with respect to the standard antifilarial drugs, ivermectin (IVM -8.4) and diethylcarbamazine (DEC-C -4.6) on glutathione-s-transferase enzyme. Further, in silico pharmacokinetic and drug-likeness studies showed that UA possesses drug-like properties. Furthermore, UA was evaluated in vivo in B. malayi-M. coucha model (natural infection), which showed 54% macrofilaricidal activity, 56% female worm sterility and almost unchanged microfilaraemia maintained throughout observation period with no adverse effect on the host. Thus, in conclusion in vitro, in silico and in vivo results indicate that UA is a promising, inexpensive, widely available natural lead, which can be designed and developed into a macrofilaricidal drug. To the best of our knowledge this is the first ever report on the anti-filarial potential of UA from E. tereticornis, which is in full agreement with the Thomson Reuter's 'Metadrug' tool screening predictions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal Kalani
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 226015 (U.P.) India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi, 110 001, India
| | - Vikas Kushwaha
- Division of Parasitology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, UP, India
| | - Pooja Sharma
- Metabolic & Structural Biology Department, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 226015 (U.P.) India
| | - Richa Verma
- Division of Parasitology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, UP, India
| | - Mukesh Srivastava
- Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Biometry section, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, UP, India
| | - Feroz Khan
- Metabolic & Structural Biology Department, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 226015 (U.P.) India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi, 110 001, India
| | - P. K. Murthy
- Division of Parasitology, CSIR-Central Drug Research Institute, Lucknow, 226001, UP, India
| | - Santosh Kumar Srivastava
- Medicinal Chemistry Department, CSIR-Central Institute of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, Lucknow, 226015 (U.P.) India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Anusandhan Bhawan, New Delhi, 110 001, India
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Wiśniewski M, Lapiński M, Zdziarska A, Długosz E, Bąska P. Molecular cloning and analysis of Ancylostoma ceylanicum glutamate-cysteine ligase. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2014; 196:12-20. [PMID: 25092620 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2014.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2013] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 07/08/2014] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Glutamate-cysteine ligase (GCL) is a heterodimer enzyme composed of a catalytic subunit (GCLC) and a modifier subunit (GCLM). This enzyme catalyses the synthesis of γ-glutamylcysteine, a precursor of glutathione. cDNAs of the putative glutamate-cysteine ligase catalytic (Ace-GCLC) and modifier subunits (Ace-GCLM) of Ancylostoma ceylanicum were cloned using the RACE-PCR amplification method. The Ace-gclc and Ace-gclm cDNAs encode proteins with 655 and 254 amino acids and calculated molecular masses of 74.76 and 28.51kDa, respectively. The Ace-GCLC amino acid sequence shares about 70% identity and 80% sequence similarity with orthologs in Loa loa, Onchocerca volvulus, Brugia malayi, and Ascaris suum, whereas the Ace-GCLM amino acid sequence has only about 30% sequence identity and 50% similarity to homologous proteins in those species. Real-time PCR analysis of mRNA expression in L3, serum stimulated L3 and adult stages of A. ceylanicum showed the highest level of Ace-GCLC and Ace-GCLM expression occurred in adult worms. No differences were detected among adult hookworms harvested 21 and 35dpi indicating expression of Ace-gclc and Ace-gclm in adult worms is constant during the course of infection. Positive interaction between two subunits of glutamate-cysteine ligase was detected using the yeast two-hybrid system, and by specific enzymatic reaction. Ace-GCL is an intracellular enzyme and is not exposed to the host immune system. Thus, as expected, we did not detect IgG antibodies against Ace-GCLC or Ace-GCLM on days 21, 60 and 120 of A. ceylanicum infection in hamsters. Furthermore, vaccination with one or both antigens did not reduce worm burdens, and resulted in no improvement of clinical parameters (hematocrit and hemoglobin) of infected hamsters. Therefore, due to the significant role of the enzyme in parasite metabolism, our analyses raises hope for the development of a successful new drug against ancylostomiasis based on the specific GCL inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Wiśniewski
- Division of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland.
| | - Maciej Lapiński
- Division of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Zdziarska
- Division of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ewa Długosz
- Division of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Piotr Bąska
- Division of Parasitology and Parasitic Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Ciszewskiego 8, 02-786 Warsaw, Poland
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Ali M, Afzal M, Abdul Nasim S, Ahmad I. Nanocurcumin: a novel antifilarial agent with DNA topoisomerase II inhibitory activity. J Drug Target 2014; 22:395-407. [DOI: 10.3109/1061186x.2013.869823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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22
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Natural products as a source for treating neglected parasitic diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:3395-439. [PMID: 23389040 PMCID: PMC3588050 DOI: 10.3390/ijms14023395] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2012] [Revised: 01/12/2013] [Accepted: 01/16/2013] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Infectious diseases caused by parasites are a major threat for the entire mankind, especially in the tropics. More than 1 billion people world-wide are directly exposed to tropical parasites such as the causative agents of trypanosomiasis, leishmaniasis, schistosomiasis, lymphatic filariasis and onchocerciasis, which represent a major health problem, particularly in impecunious areas. Unlike most antibiotics, there is no "general" antiparasitic drug available. Here, the selection of antiparasitic drugs varies between different organisms. Some of the currently available drugs are chemically de novo synthesized, however, the majority of drugs are derived from natural sources such as plants which have subsequently been chemically modified to warrant higher potency against these human pathogens. In this review article we will provide an overview of the current status of plant derived pharmaceuticals and their chemical modifications to target parasite-specific peculiarities in order to interfere with their proliferation in the human host.
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Abstract
SIGNIFICANCE Parasitic infections continue to be a major problem for global human health. Vaccines are practically not available and chemotherapy is highly unsatisfactory. One approach toward a novel antiparasitic drug development is to unravel pathways that may be suited as future targets. Parasitic organisms show a remarkable diversity with respect to the nature and functions of their main low-molecular-mass antioxidants and many of them developed pathways that do not have a counterpart in their mammalian hosts. RECENT ADVANCES Work of the last years disclosed the individual antioxidants employed by parasites and their distinct pathways. Entamoeba, Trichomonas, and Giardia directly use cysteine as main low-molecular-mass thiol but have divergent cysteine metabolisms. Malarial parasites rely exclusively on cysteine uptake and generate glutathione (GSH) as main free thiol as do metazoan parasites. Trypanosomes and Leishmania have a unique trypanothione-based thiol metabolism but employ individual mechanisms for their cysteine supply. In addition, some trypanosomatids synthesize ovothiol A and/or ascorbate. Various essential parasite enzymes such as trypanothione synthetase and trypanothione reductase in Trypanosomatids and the Schistosoma thioredoxin GSH reductase are currently intensively explored as drug target molecules. CRITICAL ISSUES Essentiality is a prerequisite but not a sufficient property of an enzyme to become a suited drug target. The availability of an appropriate in vivo screening system and many other factors are equally important. FUTURE DIRECTIONS The current organism-wide RNA-interference and proteome analyses are supposed to reveal many more interesting candidates for future drug development approaches directed against the parasite antioxidant defense systems.
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Babu RO, Moorkoth D, Azeez S, Eapen SJ. Virtual screening and in vitro assay of potential drug like inhibitors from spices against Glutathione-S-Transferase of Meloidogyne incognita. Bioinformation 2012; 8:319-25. [PMID: 22553389 PMCID: PMC3338976 DOI: 10.6026/97320630008319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2012] [Accepted: 04/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Glutathione S-transferases (GSTs) enzymes are critical antioxidant and detoxification system responsible for long-term existence of nematodes in host species. Hence, 16 phytochemicals predicted and reported to have potential nematicidal activity have been docked to GST enzyme of Meloidogyne incognita to assess their binding affinity and inhibitory activity. In vitro effects of these phytochemicals from in silico results have been done for validation of docking studies and efficacy in GST inhibition of following compounds such as alpha- pinene, alpha- terpineol, beta- caryophyllene, capsaicin, cinnamic acid, citronellol, curcumin, eugenol, geraniol, isoeugenol, linalool, myristicin, neral, NVA (N-vanillylnonanamide), piperine, vanillin have been revealed. Nematode inhibition in vitro bioassay for selected compounds could conclude that maximum mortality was observed with highest concentrations of beta- caryophyllene (78%) followed by eugenol (61.6%), cinnamic acid (55%) and N-vanillylnonanamide (49%). These findings thus suggest that the above phytochemicals could be potentially developed as nematicidal molecules against M. incognita infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosana O Babu
- Bioinformatics Centre, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala – 673 012, India
| | - Dinsha Moorkoth
- Division of Crop Protection, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala – 673 012, India
| | - Shamina Azeez
- Division of Crop Production & PHT, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala – 673 012, India
| | - Santhosh J Eapen
- Division of Crop Protection, Indian Institute of Spices Research, Calicut, Kerala – 673 012, India
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