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Li Z, Yang D, Li S, Yang L, Yan W, Xu H. Advances on electrochemical disinfection research: Mechanisms, influencing factors and applications. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 912:169043. [PMID: 38070567 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.169043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/30/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023]
Abstract
Disinfection, a vital barrier against pathogenic microorganisms, is crucial in halting the spread of waterborne diseases. Electrochemical methods have been extensively researched and implemented for the inactivation of pathogenic microorganisms from water and wastewater, primarily owing to their simplicity, efficiency, and eco-friendliness. This review succinctly outlined the core mechanisms of electrochemical disinfection (ED) and systematically examined the factors influencing its efficacy, including anode materials, system conditions, and target species. Additionally, the practical application of ED in water and wastewater treatment was comprehensively reviewed. Case studies involving various scenarios such as drinking water, hospital wastewater, black water, rainwater, and ballast water provided concrete instances of the expansive utility of ED. Finally, coupling ED with other technologies and the resulting synergies were introduced as pivotal foundations for subsequent engineering advancements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhen Li
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China
| | - Duowen Yang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China
| | - Shanshan Li
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China
| | - Liu Yang
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China
| | - Wei Yan
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China; Research Institute of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 311200, China
| | - Hao Xu
- Department of Environmental Science and Engineering, Xi'an Jiaotong University, Xi'an 710049, Shaanxi, China; Research Institute of Xi'an Jiaotong University, Zhejiang, Hangzhou 311200, China.
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Chen YD, Duan X, Zhou X, Wang R, Wang S, Ren NQ, Ho SH. Advanced oxidation processes for water disinfection: Features, mechanisms and prospects. CHEMICAL ENGINEERING JOURNAL 2021. [PMID: 0 DOI: 10.1016/j.cej.2020.128207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/05/2023]
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Zhang Z, Li B, Li N, Sardar MF, Song T, Zhu C, Lv X, Li H. Effects of UV disinfection on phenotypes and genotypes of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in secondary effluent from a municipal wastewater treatment plant. WATER RESEARCH 2019; 157:546-554. [PMID: 30991178 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2019.03.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2018] [Revised: 02/24/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
To elucidate the effects of UV disinfection on antibiotic resistance in biologically-treated wastewater, we investigated the antibiotic resistance profiles, species of cultivable heterotrophic bacteria, and antibiotic-resistance genes (ARGs) in antibiotic-resistant bacteria before and after treatment. UV disinfection greatly changed the bacterial community structure and the antibiotic resistance in wastewater. The antibiotic resistance in wastewater samples was strongly associated with the bacterial community. The proportions of Gram-positive bacteria gradually increased with increasing UV fluence. The proportions of bacteria resistant to cephalexin, penicillin, and vancomycin all greatly decreased after UV treatment in both sampling events (July 2018 and January 2019), and those for bacteria resistant to ofloxacin, ciprofloxacin, and sulfadiazine increased, resulting from the alternative antibiotic resistance profiles among different genera. UV disinfection induced the selection of multi-antibiotic resistant (MAR) bacteria. For example, the MAR indices of Aeromonas, the dominant genus during the treatments, were significantly increased after UV irradiation (P < 0.05). The MAR index was also markedly increased (P < 0.05) at a fluence of 5 mJ/cm2 in both events. In UV10 treatment, the bacterial community structure was greatly changed. The genera with relatively low MAR indices replaced that with high MAR indices, and became the dominant genera. As a result, the MAR indices of treated samples showed a decreased trend after 10 mJ/cm2 UV irradiation. The detection frequencies of ARGs located on the chromosome varied mainly due to the evolution of the microbial community. The occurrence of ARGs (tetA, tetC, tetM, tetW, tetX, and sul1) located on plasmid DNA decreased after UV disinfection, and the average detection frequencies of tet and sul genes decreased by 15% and 6%, respectively (P < 0.05). Generally speaking, the effect of UV disinfection on the enrichment of antibiotic resistance is limited in this study, and horizontal gene transfer via the plasmids in surviving bacteria might be impaired due to the decreased abundance of ARGs on the plasmids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiguo Zhang
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China; School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, PR China
| | - Binxu Li
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China
| | - Na Li
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China
| | - Muhammad Fahad Sardar
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China
| | - Tingting Song
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China
| | - Changxiong Zhu
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China
| | - Xiwu Lv
- School of Energy and Environment, Southeast University, Nanjing, 210096, PR China
| | - Hongna Li
- Agricultural Clean Watershed Research Group, Institute of Environment and Sustainable Development in Agriculture, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing, 100081, PR China.
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Kassem A, Ayoub GM, Malaeb L. Antibacterial activity of chitosan nano-composites and carbon nanotubes: A review. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2019; 668:566-576. [PMID: 30856567 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.02.446] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2019] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Bacteriological contamination of water sources is a major challenge that has a detrimental impact on both the environment and human health. This imposes the search for the most efficient disinfectant. Despite their antibacterial efficiency, traditional methods can often form disinfection byproducts through their reaction with organic and inorganic compounds. Substitutes for conventional bacterial inactivation methods should not produce harmful byproducts and must also be cost effective. Nanotechnology is an attractive option that is suited for surface reactions as nanostructures offer large surface to volume ratios. Technologies using chitosan-modified nanocomposites and carbon nanotubes have proven to offer promising alternatives for bacterial inactivation. To enhance their antibacterial efficiency, such technologies have been modified chemically and physically and have as well been associated with other treatment techniques. However, despite their high bacterial disinfection efficacy and lack of treatment byproducts, the vagueness in bacterial inactivation mechanisms and complexity in materials preparation have often obscured their wide scale application. The aim of this manuscript is to review the recent advances in bacterial disinfection using nanomaterials, in the form of chitosan and carbon nanotubes. The rapid rate of research and the notable progress in this area dictate the frequent compilation and dissemination of recent introductions to this field. Existing gaps in the literature are thus also highlighted and reported discrepancies are pinpointed so that roadmaps for future studies may be figured.
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Affiliation(s)
- Assaad Kassem
- Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - George M Ayoub
- Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Lilian Malaeb
- Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, American University of Beirut, P.O. Box 11-0236, Beirut, Lebanon.
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Wang L, Yuan Z, Karahan HE, Wang Y, Sui X, Liu F, Chen Y. Nanocarbon materials in water disinfection: state-of-the-art and future directions. NANOSCALE 2019; 11:9819-9839. [PMID: 31080989 DOI: 10.1039/c9nr02007a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Water disinfection practices are critical for supplying safe drinking water. Existing water disinfection methods come with various drawbacks, calling for alternative or complementary solutions. Nanocarbon materials (NCMs) offer unique advantages for water disinfection owing to their high antimicrobial activity, often low environmental/human toxicity, and tunable physicochemical properties. Nevertheless, it is a challenge to assess the research progress made so far due to the structure and property diversity in NCMs as well as their different targeted applications. Because of these, here we provide a broad outline of this emerging field in three parts. First, we introduce the antimicrobial activities of the different types of NCMs, including fullerenes, nanodiamonds, carbon (nano)dots, carbon nanotubes, and graphene-family materials. Next, we discuss the current status in applying these NCMs for different water disinfection problems, especially as hydrogel filters, filtration membranes, recyclable aggregates, and electrochemical devices. We also introduce the use of NCMs in photocatalysts for photocatalytic water disinfection. Lastly, we put forward the key hurdles of the field that hamper the realization of the practical applications and propose possible directions for future investigations to address those. We hope that this minireview will encourage researchers to tackle these challenges and innovate NCM-based water disinfection platforms in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liang Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Organic Solar Cells and Photochemical Conversion, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China.
| | - Ziwen Yuan
- The University of Sydney, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NSW, 2006, Australia.
| | - H Enis Karahan
- Nanyang Technological University, School of Chemical and Biomedical Engineering, 62 Nanyang Drive, 637459, Singapore
| | - Yilei Wang
- Tianjin Key Laboratory of Organic Solar Cells and Photochemical Conversion, School of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Tianjin University of Technology, Tianjin 300384, China.
| | - Xiao Sui
- The University of Sydney, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NSW, 2006, Australia.
| | - Fei Liu
- The University of Sydney, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NSW, 2006, Australia. and State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, 100 Central Xianlie Road, Guangzhou 510070, China
| | - Yuan Chen
- The University of Sydney, School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, NSW, 2006, Australia.
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Zhang Z, Zhou J, Du X. Electrochemical Biosensors for Detection of Foodborne Pathogens. MICROMACHINES 2019; 10:mi10040222. [PMID: 30925806 PMCID: PMC6523478 DOI: 10.3390/mi10040222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2019] [Revised: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 03/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Foodborne safety has become a global public health problem in both developed and developing countries. The rapid and precise monitoring and detection of foodborne pathogens has generated a strong interest by researchers in order to control and prevent human foodborne infections. Traditional methods for the detection of foodborne pathogens are often time-consuming, laborious, expensive, and unable to satisfy the demands of rapid food testing. Owing to the advantages of simplicity, real-time analysis, high sensitivity, miniaturization, rapid detection time, and low cost, electrochemical biosensing technology is more and more widely used in determination of foodborne pathogens. Here, we summarize recent developments in electrochemical biosensing technologies used to detect common foodborne pathogens. Additionally, we discuss research challenges and future prospects for this field of study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenguo Zhang
- College of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology of Shandong Province, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Jun Zhou
- College of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology of Shandong Province, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China
| | - Xin Du
- College of Life Sciences, Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, Key Laboratory of Animal Resistance Biology of Shandong Province, Shandong Normal University, Jinan 250014, China.
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Enhanced dispersion of carbon nanotubes in water by plasma induced graft poly(N,N-dimethylacrylamide) and its application in humic acid capture. J Mol Liq 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2018.12.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Chen Y, Yang W, Gao S, Zhu L, Sun C, Li Q. Internal Polarization Modulation in Bi 2 MoO 6 for Photocatalytic Performance Enhancement under Visible-Light Illumination. CHEMSUSCHEM 2018; 11:1521-1532. [PMID: 29508555 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201800180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2018] [Revised: 03/05/2018] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
A built-in electric field from polarization inside polar photocatalysts could provide the driving force for photogenerated electrons and holes to move in opposite directions for better separation to improve their photocatalytic performance. The photocatalytic performance of a polar photocatalyst of Bi2 MoO6 has been enhanced through the precise control of its structure to increase internal polarization. DFT calculations predicted that a shortened crystal lattice parameter b in Bi2 MoO6 could induce larger internal polarization, which was achieved by the modulation of the pH of the reaction solution during a solvothermal synthetic process. A series of Bi2 MoO6 samples were created with reaction solutions of pH≈1, 4, and 8; the crystal lattice parameter b was found to decrease gradually with increasing solution pH. Accordingly, these Bi2 MoO6 samples demonstrated a gradually enhanced photocatalytic performance with decreasing crystal lattice parameter b, as demonstrated by the photocatalytic degradation of sulfamethoxazole/phenol and disinfection of Staphylococcus aureus bacteria under visible-light illumination due to improved photogenerated charge-carrier separation. This study demonstrates an innovative design strategy for materials to further enhance the photocatalytic performance of polar photocatalysts for a broad range of technical applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yan Chen
- Environment Functional Materials Division, Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, 110016, PR China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Weiyi Yang
- Environment Functional Materials Division, Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, 110016, PR China
| | - Shuang Gao
- Division of Energy and Environment, Graduate School at Shenzhen, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Linggang Zhu
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100049, PR China
| | - Caixia Sun
- Key Laboratory of New Metallic Functional Materials and Advanced Surface Engineering in Universities of Shandong, Qingdao Binhai University, Qingdao, 266555, PR China
- School of Mechanical and Electronic Engineering, Qingdao Binhai University, Qingdao, 266555, PR China
| | - Qi Li
- Environment Functional Materials Division, Shenyang National Laboratory for Materials Science, Institute of Metal Research, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenyang, Liaoning Province, 110016, PR China
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El Khamlichi R, Bouchta D, Ben Atia M, Choukairi M, Khalid RT, Raissouni I, Tazi S, Mohammadi A, Soussi A, Draoui K, Faiza C, Lamarti Sefian M. A novel carbon/chitosan paste electrode for electrochemical detection of normetanephrine in the urine. J Solid State Electrochem 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-018-3906-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
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Ortiz-Ibarra H, Torres-Vitela R, Gómez-Salazar S, Casillas N, Ponce de León C, Walsh FC. Enhancement of antibacterial efficiency at silver electrodeposited on coconut shell activated carbon by modulating pulse frequency. J Solid State Electrochem 2017. [DOI: 10.1007/s10008-017-3795-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Trigueiro LF, Silva LM, Itto LABD, Oliveira TMBF, Motheo AJ, Martínez-Huitle CA, Alves JJF, Castro SSL. Inactivation, lysis and degradation by-products of Saccharomyces cerevisiae by electrooxidation using DSA. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2017; 24:6096-6105. [PMID: 27495919 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-016-7243-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/12/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a microorganism with cell walls resistant to many types of treatments, was chosen as a model to study electrochemical disinfection process using dimensionally stable anodes (DSA). DSA electrodes with nominal composition of Ti/RuO2TiO2 and Ti/RuO2TiO2IrO2 were evaluated in 0.05 mol L-1 Na2SO4 containing yeast. The results showed inactivation about of 100 % of the microorganisms at Ti/RuO2TiO2 by applying 20 and 60 mA cm-2 after 120 min of electrolysis, while a complete inactivation at Ti/RuO2IrO2TiO2 electrode was achieved after 180 min at 60 mA cm-2. When chloride ions were added in the electrolyte solution, 100 % of the yeast was inactivated at 20 mA cm-2 after 120 min of electrolysis, independent of the anode used. In the absence of chloride, the energy consumption (EC) was of 34.80 kWh m-3, at 20 mA cm-2 by using Ti/RuO2TiO2 anode. Meanwhile, in the presence of chloride, EC was reduced, requiring 30.24 and 30.99 kWh m-3 at 20 mA cm-2, for Ti/RuO2TiO2 and Ti/RuO2IrO2TiO2 electrodes, respectively, The best performance for cell lysis was obtained in the presence of chloride with EC of 88.80 kWh m-3 (Ti/RuO2TiO2) and 91.85 kWh m-3 (Ti/RuO2IrO2TiO2) to remove, respectively, 92 and 95 % of density yeast. The results clearly showed that yeast, as a model adopted, was efficiently inactivated and lysed by electrolysis disinfection using DSA-type electrodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lyliane F Trigueiro
- Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of State of Rio Grande do Norte, CP 70, CEP 59625-620, Mossoró, RN, Brazil
| | - Larissa M Silva
- Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of State of Rio Grande do Norte, CP 70, CEP 59625-620, Mossoró, RN, Brazil
| | - Luciana A B D Itto
- Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of State of Rio Grande do Norte, CP 70, CEP 59625-620, Mossoró, RN, Brazil
| | - Thiago M B F Oliveira
- Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of State of Rio Grande do Norte, CP 70, CEP 59625-620, Mossoró, RN, Brazil
| | - Artur J Motheo
- São Carlos Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Avenida Trabalhador São Carlense 400, CEP 13566-590, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Carlos A Martínez-Huitle
- Institute of Chemistry, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, Campus Universitário s/n, CEP 59078-970, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | - Janete J F Alves
- Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of State of Rio Grande do Norte, CP 70, CEP 59625-620, Mossoró, RN, Brazil
| | - Suely S L Castro
- Faculty of Natural and Exact Sciences, University of State of Rio Grande do Norte, CP 70, CEP 59625-620, Mossoró, RN, Brazil.
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Bruguera-Casamada C, Sirés I, Prieto MJ, Brillas E, Araujo RM. The ability of electrochemical oxidation with a BDD anode to inactivate Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria in low conductivity sulfate medium. CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 163:516-524. [PMID: 27567151 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The disinfection of 100 mL of synthetic water containing 7 mM Na2SO4 with 10(6) CFU mL(-1) of either Gram-negative or Gram-positive bacteria has been studied by electrochemical oxidation. The electrolytic cell was a stirred tank reactor equipped with a boron-doped diamond (BDD) anode and a stainless steel cathode and the trials were performed at acidic and neutral pH, at 33.3 mA cm(-2) and 25 °C. Reactive oxygen species, pre-eminently hydroxyl radicals, were efficiently produced in both media from water oxidation at the BDD anode and the bacteria concentration was reduced by ≥ 5 log units after 60 min of electrolysis, thus constituting a good chlorine-free disinfection treatment. All the inactivation kinetics were described by a logistic model, with no significant statistical differences between acidic and neutral suspensions. The electrochemical disinfection with BDD was very effective for Gram-negative bacilli like Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Gram-positive ones like Bacillus atrophaeus, whereas the Gram-positive cocci Staphylococcus aureus and Enterococcus hirae were more resistant. Thus, the latter organisms are a better choice than E. coli as process indicators. Scanning electron microscopy highlighted a transition from initial cells with standard morphology supported on clean filters to inactivated cells with a highly altered morphology lying on dirty filters with plenty of cellular debris. Larger damage was observed for Gram-negative cells compared to Gram-positive ones. The inactivation effect could then be related to the chemical composition of the outer layers of the cell structure along with the modification of the transmembrane potentials upon current passage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carmina Bruguera-Casamada
- Departament de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignasi Sirés
- Laboratori d'Electroquímica dels Materials i del Medi Ambient, Departament de Química Física, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - María J Prieto
- Departament de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Enric Brillas
- Laboratori d'Electroquímica dels Materials i del Medi Ambient, Departament de Química Física, Facultat de Química, Universitat de Barcelona, Martí i Franquès 1-11, 08028 Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rosa M Araujo
- Departament de Microbiologia, Facultat de Biologia, Universitat de Barcelona, Avinguda Diagonal 643, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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