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Fernández-Vidal J, Hardwick LJ, Cabello G, Attard GA. Effect of alkali-metal cation on oxygen adsorption at Pt single-crystal electrodes in non-aqueous electrolytes. Faraday Discuss 2024; 248:102-118. [PMID: 37753622 DOI: 10.1039/d3fd00084b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
The effect of Group 1 alkali-metal cations (Na+, K+, and Cs+) on the oxygen reduction and evolution reactions (ORR and OER) using dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)-based electrolytes was investigated. Cyclic voltammetry (CV) utilising different Pt-electrode surfaces (polycrystalline Pt, Pt(111) and Pt(100)) was undertaken to investigate the influence of surface structure upon the ORR and OER. For K+ and Cs+, negligible variation in the CV response (in contrast to Na+) was observed using Pt(111), Pt(100) and Pt(poly) electrodes, consistent with a weak surface-metal/superoxide complex interaction. Indeed, changes in the half-wave potentials (E1/2) and relative intensities of the redox peaks corresponding to superoxy (O2-) and peroxy (O22-) ion formation were consistent with a solution-mediated mechanism for larger cations, such as Cs+. Support for this finding was obtained via in situ shell-isolated nanoparticle-enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS). During the ORR and in the presence of Cs+, O2- and weakly adsorbed caesium superoxide (CsO2) species were detected. Because DMSO was found to strongly interact with the surface at potentials associated with the ORR, CsO2 was readily displaced at more negative potentials via increased solvent adsorption at the surface. This finding highlights the important impact of the solvent during ORR/OER reactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Fernández-Vidal
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Peach Street, L69 7ZF Liverpool, UK
| | - Laurence J Hardwick
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Peach Street, L69 7ZF Liverpool, UK
| | - Gema Cabello
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Peach Street, L69 7ZF Liverpool, UK
| | - Gary A Attard
- Department of Physics, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, L69 7ZD Liverpool, UK.
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2
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Zhang J, Zhang XG, Dong JC, Radjenovic PM, Young DJ, Yao JL, Yuan YX, Tian ZQ, Li JF. Real-Time Monitoring of Surface Effects on the Oxygen Reduction Reaction Mechanism for Aprotic Na-O 2 Batteries. J Am Chem Soc 2021; 143:20049-20054. [PMID: 34812610 DOI: 10.1021/jacs.1c10009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Discharging of aprotic sodium-oxygen (Na-O2) batteries is driven by the cathodic oxygen reduction reaction in the presence of sodium cations (Na+-ORR). However, the mechanism of aprotic Na+-ORR remains ambiguous and is system dependent. In-situ electrochemical Raman spectroscopy has been employed to study the aprotic Na+-ORR processes at three atomically ordered Au(hkl) single-crystal surfaces for the first time, and the structure-intermediates/mechanism relationship has been identified at a molecular level. Direct spectroscopic evidence of superoxide on Au(110) and peroxide on Au(100) and Au(111) as intermediates/products has been obtained. Combining these experimental results with theoretical simulation has revealed that the surface effect of Au(hkl) electrodes on aprotic Na+-ORR activity is mainly caused by the different adsorption of Na+ and O2. This work enhances our understanding of aprotic Na+-ORR on Au(hkl) surfaces and provides further guidance for the design of improved Na-O2 batteries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China.,State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Xia-Guang Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Green Chemical Media and Reactions, Ministry of Education, Collaborative Innovation Center of Henan Province for Green Manufacturing of Fine Chemicals, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, Henan Normal University, Xinxiang 453007, China
| | - Jin-Chao Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Petar M Radjenovic
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - David James Young
- College of Engineering, Information Technology and Environment, Charles Darwin University, Casuarina, Northern Territory 0909, Australia
| | - Jian-Lin Yao
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Ya-Xian Yuan
- College of Chemistry, Chemical Engineering and Materials Science, Soochow University, Suzhou 215123, China
| | - Zhong-Qun Tian
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
| | - Jian-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry of Solid Surfaces, College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, College of Energy, iChEM, Xiamen University, Xiamen 361005, China
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3
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Bawol PP, Reinsberg PH, Koellisch‐Mirbach A, Bondue CJ, Baltruschat H. The Oxygen Reduction Reaction in Ca 2+ -Containing DMSO: Reaction Mechanism, Electrode Surface Characterization, and Redox Mediation*. CHEMSUSCHEM 2021; 14:428-440. [PMID: 32865298 PMCID: PMC7821240 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202001605] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 08/26/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this study the fundamental understanding of the underlying reactions of a possible Ca-O2 battery using a DMSO-based electrolyte was strengthened. Employing the rotating ring disc electrode, a transition from a mixed process of O2 - and O2 2- formation to an exclusive O2 - formation at gold electrodes is observed. It is shown that in this system Ca-superoxide and Ca-peroxide are formed as soluble species. However, there is a strongly adsorbed layer of products of the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) s on the electrode surface, which is blocking the electrode. Surprisingly the blockade is only a partial blockade for the formation of peroxide while the formation of superoxide is maintained. During an anodic sweep, the ORR product layer is stripped from the electrode surface. With X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) the deposited ORR products were shown to be Ca(O2 )2 , CaO2 , and CaO as well as side-reaction products such as CO3 2- and other oxygen-containing carbon species. It is shown that the strongly attached layer on the electrocatalyst, that was partially blocking the electrode, could be adsorbed CaO. The disproportionation reaction of O2 - in presence of Ca2+ was demonstrated via mass spectrometry. Finally, the ORR mediated by 2,5-di-tert-1,4-benzoquinone (DBBQ) was investigated by differential electrochemical mass spectrometry (DEMS) and XPS. Similar products as without DBBQ are deposited on the electrode surface. The analysis of the DEMS experiments shows that DBBQ- reduces O2 to O2 - and O2 2- , whereas in the presence of DBBQ2- O2 2- is formed. The mechanism of the ORR with and without DBBQ is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pawel Peter Bawol
- Institut für Physikalische und Theoretische ChemieUniversität BonnRömerstraße 16453117BonnGermany
| | | | | | | | - Helmut Baltruschat
- Institut für Physikalische und Theoretische ChemieUniversität BonnRömerstraße 16453117BonnGermany
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4
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Eckardt M, Alwast D, Schnaidt J, Behm RJ. Influence of Additives on the Reversible Oxygen Reduction Reaction/Oxygen Evolution Reaction in the Mg 2+ -Containing Ionic Liquid N-Butyl-N-Methylpyrrolidinium Bis(Trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide. CHEMSUSCHEM 2020; 13:3919-3927. [PMID: 32315492 PMCID: PMC7496526 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.202000672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The influence of different additives on the oxygen reduction reaction/oxygen evolution reaction (ORR/OER) in magnesium-containing N-butyl-N-methylpyrrolidinium bis(trifluoromethanesulfonyl)imide ([BMP][TFSI]) on a glassy carbon electrode was investigated to gain a better understanding of the electrochemical processes in Mg-air batteries. 18-Crown-6 was used as a complexing agent for Mg ions to hinder the passivation caused by their reaction with ORR products such as superoxide and peroxide anions. Furthermore, borane dimethylamine complex (NBH) was used as a potential water-removing agent to inhibit electrode passivation by reacting with trace impurities of water. The electrochemical processes were characterized by differential electrochemical mass spectrometry to monitor the consumed and evolved O2 in the ORR/OER and determine the number of transferred electrons. Crown ether and NBH efficiently masked Mg2+ . A stochiometric excess of crown ether resulted in reduced formation of a passivation layer, whereas at too high concentrations the reversibility of the ORR/OER was diminished.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Eckardt
- Institute of Surface Chemistry and CatalysisUlm UniversityAlbert-Einstein-Allee 4789081UlmGermany
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy StorageHelmholtzstr. 1189081UlmGermany
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)P.O. Box 364076021KarlsruheGermany
| | - D. Alwast
- Institute of Surface Chemistry and CatalysisUlm UniversityAlbert-Einstein-Allee 4789081UlmGermany
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy StorageHelmholtzstr. 1189081UlmGermany
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT)P.O. Box 364076021KarlsruheGermany
| | - J. Schnaidt
- Institute of Surface Chemistry and CatalysisUlm UniversityAlbert-Einstein-Allee 4789081UlmGermany
| | - R. J. Behm
- Institute of Surface Chemistry and CatalysisUlm UniversityAlbert-Einstein-Allee 4789081UlmGermany
- Helmholtz Institute Ulm (HIU) Electrochemical Energy StorageHelmholtzstr. 1189081UlmGermany
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5
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Kwak WJ, Rosy, Sharon D, Xia C, Kim H, Johnson LR, Bruce PG, Nazar LF, Sun YK, Frimer AA, Noked M, Freunberger SA, Aurbach D. Lithium-Oxygen Batteries and Related Systems: Potential, Status, and Future. Chem Rev 2020; 120:6626-6683. [PMID: 32134255 DOI: 10.1021/acs.chemrev.9b00609] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 58.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The goal of limiting global warming to 1.5 °C requires a drastic reduction in CO2 emissions across many sectors of the world economy. Batteries are vital to this endeavor, whether used in electric vehicles, to store renewable electricity, or in aviation. Present lithium-ion technologies are preparing the public for this inevitable change, but their maximum theoretical specific capacity presents a limitation. Their high cost is another concern for commercial viability. Metal-air batteries have the highest theoretical energy density of all possible secondary battery technologies and could yield step changes in energy storage, if their practical difficulties could be overcome. The scope of this review is to provide an objective, comprehensive, and authoritative assessment of the intensive work invested in nonaqueous rechargeable metal-air batteries over the past few years, which identified the key problems and guides directions to solve them. We focus primarily on the challenges and outlook for Li-O2 cells but include Na-O2, K-O2, and Mg-O2 cells for comparison. Our review highlights the interdisciplinary nature of this field that involves a combination of materials chemistry, electrochemistry, computation, microscopy, spectroscopy, and surface science. The mechanisms of O2 reduction and evolution are considered in the light of recent findings, along with developments in positive and negative electrodes, electrolytes, electrocatalysis on surfaces and in solution, and the degradative effect of singlet oxygen, which is typically formed in Li-O2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Won-Jin Kwak
- Department of Energy Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea.,Energy & Environment Directorate, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington 99354, United States.,Department of Chemistry, Ajou University, Suwon 16499, Republic of Korea
| | - Rosy
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.,Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Daniel Sharon
- Pritzker School of Molecular Engineering, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60637, United States.,Materials Science Division, Argonne National Laboratory, Lemont, Illinois 60439, United States
| | - Chun Xia
- Department of Chemistry and the Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Hun Kim
- Department of Energy Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Lee R Johnson
- School of Chemistry and GSK Carbon Neutral Laboratory for Sustainable Chemistry, University of Nottingham, Nottingham NG7 2TU, U.K
| | - Peter G Bruce
- Departments of Materials and Chemistry, University of Oxford, Parks Road, Oxford OX1 3PH, U.K
| | - Linda F Nazar
- Department of Chemistry and the Waterloo Institute for Nanotechnology, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Yang-Kook Sun
- Department of Energy Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul 04763, Republic of Korea
| | - Aryeh A Frimer
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Malachi Noked
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.,Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
| | - Stefan A Freunberger
- Institute for Chemistry and Technology of Materials, Graz University of Technology, 8010 Graz, Austria.,Institute of Science and Technology Austria, 3400 Klosterneuburg, Austria
| | - Doron Aurbach
- Department of Chemistry, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel.,Bar-Ilan Institute of Nanotechnology and Advanced Materials, Ramat Gan 5290002, Israel
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6
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Ponrouch A, Palacín MR. Post-Li batteries: promises and challenges. PHILOSOPHICAL TRANSACTIONS. SERIES A, MATHEMATICAL, PHYSICAL, AND ENGINEERING SCIENCES 2019; 377:20180297. [PMID: 31280715 PMCID: PMC6635625 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2018.0297] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 05/19/2023]
Abstract
Current societal challenges in terms of energy storage have prompted an intensification in the research aiming at unravelling new high energy density battery technologies. These would have the potential of having disruptive effects in the world transition towards a less carbon-dependent energy economy through transport, both by electrification and renewable energy integration. Aside from controversial debates on lithium supply, the development of new sustainable battery chemistries based on abundant elements is appealing, especially for large-scale stationary applications. Interesting alternatives are to use sodium, magnesium or calcium instead of lithium. While for the Na-ion case, fast progresses are expected as a result of chemical similarities with lithium and the cumulated Li-ion battery know-how over the years, for Ca and Mg the situation is radically different. On the one hand, the possibility to use Ca or Mg metal anodes would bring a breakthrough in terms of energy density; on the other, development of suitable electrolytes and cathodes with efficient multivalent ion migration are bottlenecks to overcome. This article is part of a discussion meeting issue 'Energy materials for a low carbon future'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Ponrouch
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC), Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- ALISTORE-ERI European Research Institute, France
| | - M. Rosa Palacín
- Institut de Ciència de Materials de Barcelona (ICMAB-CSIC), Campus UAB, 08193 Bellaterra, Catalonia, Spain
- ALISTORE-ERI European Research Institute, France
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7
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Weinrich H, Durmus YE, Tempel H, Kungl H, Eichel RA. Silicon and Iron as Resource-Efficient Anode Materials for Ambient-Temperature Metal-Air Batteries: A Review. MATERIALS 2019; 12:ma12132134. [PMID: 31269782 PMCID: PMC6651549 DOI: 10.3390/ma12132134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2019] [Revised: 06/26/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Metal-air batteries provide a most promising battery technology given their outstanding potential energy densities, which are desirable for both stationary and mobile applications in a “beyond lithium-ion” battery market. Silicon- and iron-air batteries underwent less research and development compared to lithium- and zinc-air batteries. Nevertheless, in the recent past, the two also-ran battery systems made considerable progress and attracted rising research interest due to the excellent resource-efficiency of silicon and iron. Silicon and iron are among the top five of the most abundant elements in the Earth’s crust, which ensures almost infinite material supply of the anode materials, even for large scale applications. Furthermore, primary silicon-air batteries are set to provide one of the highest energy densities among all types of batteries, while iron-air batteries are frequently considered as a highly rechargeable system with decent performance characteristics. Considering fundamental aspects for the anode materials, i.e., the metal electrodes, in this review we will first outline the challenges, which explicitly apply to silicon- and iron-air batteries and prevented them from a broad implementation so far. Afterwards, we provide an extensive literature survey regarding state-of-the-art experimental approaches, which are set to resolve the aforementioned challenges and might enable the introduction of silicon- and iron-air batteries into the battery market in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Henning Weinrich
- Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany.
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Landoltweg 2, 52074 Aachen, Germany.
| | - Yasin Emre Durmus
- Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Landoltweg 2, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | - Hermann Tempel
- Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Hans Kungl
- Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
| | - Rüdiger-A Eichel
- Institute of Energy and Climate Research-Fundamental Electrochemistry (IEK-9), Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, 52428 Jülich, Germany
- RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Physical Chemistry, Landoltweg 2, 52074 Aachen, Germany
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8
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Galloway TA, Dong JC, Li JF, Attard G, Hardwick LJ. Oxygen reactions on Pt{ hkl} in a non-aqueous Na + electrolyte: site selective stabilisation of a sodium peroxy species. Chem Sci 2019; 10:2956-2964. [PMID: 30996874 PMCID: PMC6427968 DOI: 10.1039/c8sc05489d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2018] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The oxygen reduction and evolution reaction in the presence of sodium ions in an organic solvent is studied on well-defined Pt electrode surfaces.
Sodium–oxygen battery cathodes utilise the reversible redox species of oxygen in the presence of sodium ions. However, the oxygen reduction and evolution reaction mechanism is yet to be conclusively determined. In order to examine the part played by surface structure in sodium–oxygen electrochemistry for the development of catalytic materials and structures, a method of preparing clean, well-defined Pt electrode surfaces for adsorption studies in aprotic solvents is described. Using cyclic voltammetry (CV) and in situ electrochemical shell-isolated nanoparticle enhanced Raman spectroscopy (SHINERS), the various stages of oxygen reduction as a function of potential have been determined. It is found that on Pt{111} and Pt{110}-(1 × 1) terraces, a long lived surface sodium peroxide species is formed reversibly, whereas on Pt{100} and polycrystalline electrodes, this species is not detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas A Galloway
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy , Department of Chemistry , University of Liverpool , UK .
| | - Jin-Chao Dong
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Solid Surfaces , University of Xiamen , China
| | - Jian-Feng Li
- State Key Laboratory of Physical Chemistry and Solid Surfaces , University of Xiamen , China
| | - Gary Attard
- Department of Physics , University of Liverpool , UK
| | - Laurence J Hardwick
- Stephenson Institute for Renewable Energy , Department of Chemistry , University of Liverpool , UK .
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9
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Akabayov S, Leskes M, Noked M. Bifunctional Role of LiNO 3 in Li-O 2 Batteries: Deconvoluting Surface and Catalytic Effects. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2018; 10:29622-29629. [PMID: 30094988 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.8b10054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/08/2023]
Abstract
Out of the many challenges in the realization of lithium-O2 batteries (LOB), the major is to deal with the instability of the electrolyte and the cathode interface under the stringent environment of both oxygen reduction and evolution reactions. Lithium nitrate was recently proposed as a promising salt for LOB because of its capability to stabilize the lithium anode by the formation of a solid electrolyte interphase, its low level of dissociation in aprotic solvents, and its catalytic effect toward oxygen evolution reaction (OER) in rechargeable LOB. Nevertheless, a deeper understanding of the influence of nitrate on the stability and electrochemical response of the cathode in LOB is yet to be realized. Additionally, it is well accepted that carbon instability toward oxidation is a major reason for early failure of LOB cells; therefore, it is essential to investigate the effect of electrolyte components on this side of the battery. In the present work, we show that nitrate leads to interfacial changes, which result in the formation of a surface protection domain on the carbon scaffold of LOB cathode, which helps in suppressing the oxidative damage of the carbon. This effect is conjugated with an additional electrocatalytic effect of the nitrate ion on the OER. Using in operando online electrochemical mass spectroscopy, we herein deconvolute these two positive effects and show how they are dependent on nitrate concentration and the potential of cell operation. We show that a low amount of nitrate can exhibit the catalytic behavior; however, in order to harness its ability to suppress the oxidative damage and passivate the carbon surface, an excess of LiNO3 is required.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sabine Akabayov
- Department of Materials and Interfaces , Weizmann Institute of Science , Rehovot 76100 , Israel
| | - Michal Leskes
- Department of Materials and Interfaces , Weizmann Institute of Science , Rehovot 76100 , Israel
| | - Malachi Noked
- Department of Chemistry , Bar-Ilan University , Ramat Gan 52900 , Israel
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