Electrochemical sensor for detection of imipramine antidepressant at low potential based on oxidized carbon nanotubes, ferrocenecarboxylic acid, and cyclodextrin: application in psychotropic drugs and urine samples

Electrochemical biosensor based on RNA aptamer and ferrocenecarboxylic acid signal probe for C-reactive protein detection

Monitoring health-related biomarkers using fast and facile detection techniques provides key physicochemical information for disease diagnosis or reflects body health status. Among them, electrochemical detection of various bio-macromolecules, e.g., the C-reactive protein (CRP), is of great interest in offering potential diagnosis for acute inflammation caused by infections, heart diseases, etc. Herein, a novel electrochemical aptamer biosensor was constructed from Ti3C2Tx MXene and in-situ reduced Au NPs for thiolated-RNA aptamer immobilization and CRP protein detection using Fc(COOH) as the signal probe. The sensory performances for CRP detection were optimized based on working conditions, including the incubation times and the pH. The large surface area offered by Ti3C2Tx MXene and high electrical conductivity originating from Au NPs endowed the as-fabricated aptamer biosensor with a decent sensitivity for CRP in a wide linear range of 0.05-80.0 ng/mL, good selectivity over interfering substances, and a low detection limit of 0.026 ng/mL. Such aptamer biosensors also detected CRP in serum samples using the spike & recovery method with reasonable recovery rates. The results demonstrated the potential of the as-fabricated electrochemical aptamer biosensor for fast and facile CRP detection in practical applications.

Review on Surface-Modified Electrodes for the Enhanced Electrochemical Detection of Selective Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs)

Selective serotonin re-uptake inhibitors (SSRIs) are one of the most commonly prescribed classes of antidepressants used for the treatment of moderate to severe depressive disorder, personality disorders and various phobias. This class of antidepressants was created with improved margins of safety. However, genetic polymorphism may be responsible for the high variability in patients' responses to treatment, ranging from failure to delayed therapeutic responses to severe adverse effects of treatment. It is crucial that the appropriate amount of SSRI drugs is administered to ensure the optimum therapeutic efficacy and intervention to minimise severe and toxic effects in patients, which may be the result of accidental and deliberate cases of poisoning. Determining SSRI concentration in human fluids and the environment with high sensitivity, specificity and reproducibility, and at a low cost and real-time monitoring, is imperative. Electrochemical sensors with advanced functional materials have drawn the attention of researchers as a result of these advantages over conventional techniques. This review article aims to present functional materials such as polymers, carbon nanomaterials, metal nanomaterials as well as composites for surface modification of electrodes for sensitive detection and quantification of SSRIs, including fluoxetine, citalopram, paroxetine, fluvoxamine and sertraline. Sensor fabrication, sensor/analyte interactions, design rationale and properties of functional material and the electrocatalytic effect of the modified electrode on SSRI detection are discussed.

Electrochemical Chemically Based Sensors and Emerging Enzymatic Biosensors for Antidepressant Drug Detection: A Review

Major depressive disorder is a widespread condition with antidepressants as the main pharmacological treatment. However, some patients experience concerning adverse reactions or have an inadequate response to treatment. Analytical chromatographic techniques, among other techniques, are valuable tools for investigating medication complications, including those associated with antidepressants. Nevertheless, there is a growing need to address the limitations associated with these techniques. In recent years, electrochemical (bio)sensors have garnered significant attention due to their lower cost, portability, and precision. Electrochemical (bio)sensors can be used for various applications related to depression, such as monitoring the levels of antidepressants in biological and in environmental samples. They can provide accurate and rapid results, which could facilitate personalized treatment and improve patient outcomes. This state-of-the-art literature review aims to explore the latest advancements in the electrochemical detection of antidepressants. The review focuses on two types of electrochemical sensors: Chemically modified sensors and enzyme-based biosensors. The referred papers are carefully categorized according to their respective sensor type. The review examines the differences between the two sensing methods, highlights their unique features and limitations, and provides an in-depth analysis of each sensor.

Elucidating the interaction of antidepressant drug paroxetine with ct-dsDNA: A comparative study by electrochemical, spectroscopic, and molecular docking approaches

This study is designed to investigate the interaction of phenylpiperidine derivative drug paroxetine, which is an effective serotonin reuptake inhibitor and biomolecules through electrochemical, fluorescence spectroscopy, and molecular docking methods. The interaction between paroxetine and biomolecules was investigated by differential pulse voltammetry according to the decrease in deoxyguanosine anodic oxidation signal of double-stranded calf thymus DNA. Fluorescence spectroscopy studies were performed by titrating paroxetine against double-stranded calf thymus DNA solution at four different temperatures. The fluorescent results showed that paroxetine had a great affinity to bind with double-stranded calf thymus DNA. Interaction studies demonstrate that paroxetine binds to double-stranded calf thymus DNA via intercalation binding mode, and the binding constant values ​​were calculated as 7.24 × 10⁴ M^-1 and 1.52 × 10⁴ M^-1 at 25 °C, based on voltammetric and spectroscopic results, respectively. Moreover, with the aim of elucidating the interaction mechanism between paroxetine and double-stranded calf thymus DNA, electrochemical and fluorescence spectroscopy studies along with molecular docking analysis were made.

Perspective-Electrochemical Sensors for Neurotransmitters and Psychiatrics: Steps toward Physiological Mental Health Monitoring

Therapeutic monitoring of neurotransmitters (NTs) and psychiatric medications is essential for the diagnosis and treatment of mental illness. However, in-vivo monitoring of NTs in humans as well as continuous physiological monitoring of psychiatrics have yet to be realized. In pursuit of this goal, there has been a plethora of work to develop electrochemical sensors for both in-vivo NT monitoring as well as in-vitro detection of psychiatric medications. We review these sensors here while discussing next steps needed to achieve concurrent, continuous physiological monitoring of NTs and psychiatric medications as part of a closed-loop feedback system that guides medication administration.

Antidepressants determination using an electroanalytical approach: A review of methods

Antidepressants are the pharmaceutical compounds used in the treatment of depression, anxiety disorders and all related disturbances promoted by genetic factors, environmental problems or modern lifestyles. Nonetheless, the inadequate ingestion of antidepressants provokes adverse effects in the human body and can contaminate the environment. For this reason, it is necessary to identify and quantify these compounds in biological fluids, natural water, wastewater, and pharmaceutical formulations. Consequently, this review presents the main electroanalytical techniques used in the analysis of antidepressants, indicating the advantages, which include low cost, suitable analytical parameters, simplified sample preparation steps, easy operation and reduced time for completion of the analysis. Reports in specialized literature, published from 2000 to 2020, are presented and some are discussed, demonstrating that the electroanalytical techniques can be employed, with success, in the determination of antidepressants, indicating alternative methodologies to improve analytical parameters and minimize the use and generation of toxic residues.

A supramolecular hybrid sensor based on cucurbit[8]uril, 2D-molibdenum disulphide and diamond nanoparticles towards methyl viologen analysis

We develop an electrochemical sensor by using 2D-transition metal dichalcogenides (TMD), specifically MoS₂, and nanoparticles stabilized with cucurbit[8]uril (CB[8]) incorporated together with them. Two different nanoparticles are assayed: diamond nanoparticles (DNPs) and gold nanoparticles (AuNp). 0D materials, together with TMD, provide increased conductivity and active surface while the macrocycle CB[8] affords selectivity towards the guest methyl viologen (MV²⁺), also named paraquat. Glassy Carbon (GC) electrodes are modified by drop-casting of suspensions of MoS₂, followed by either a CB[8]-DNPs hybrid dispersion or a CB[8]-AuNp suspension. Atomic force microscopy is employed for the morphological characterization of the electrochemical sensor surface while cyclic voltammetry and electrochemical impedance spectroscopy techniques allow the electrochemical characterization of the sensor. The well-stablished signals of CB[8]-encapsulated MV²⁺ arise in voltammetric measurements when the macrocycle modifies the 0D-materials. Once the sensor construction and differential pulse voltammetry parameters have been optimized for quantification purposes, calibration procedures are performed with the platform GC/MoS₂/CB[8]-DNPs. This sensing platform shows linear relations between peak intensity and the MV²⁺ concentration in the linear concentration range of (0.73-8.0) · 10^-6 M with a limit of detection of 2.2 · 10^-7 M. Analyses of river water samples fortified with MV²⁺ at the μM level shows recoveries of 100% with RSD values of 6.4% (n = 3).

Selective electrochemical detection of antidepressant drug imipramine in blood serum and urine samples using an antimony telluride-graphite nanofiber electrode

A high-performance imipramine (IMPR) sensor has been developed  based on metal chalcogenide-carbon composite materials. The antimony telluride-graphite nanofiber (Sb₂Te₃-GNF, hereafter SBT-GNF) composite was synthesized by the hydrothermal method and confirmed by X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) pattern. The morphology, crystalline lattice, and chemical states were characterized by HRTEM, SAED, and XPS analysis. The characterizations confirmed the formation of an effective composite, SBT-GNF. The SBT-GNF was fabricated as a disposable sensor electrode with a screen-printed carbon electrode (SPCE) and examined for the detection of IMPR by differential pulse voltammetry (DPV). The electroanalytical results of SBT-GNF are compared with the SBT and GNF, and the rational design of effective composite is discussed. SBT-GNF/SPCE showed a good linear range (0.01‑51.8 μM), sensitivity (1.35 ± 0.1 μA μM^-1 cm^-2), and low LOD (4 ± 2 nM). Moreover, the SBT-GNF/SPCE revealed high selectivity and high tolerance limit against potential interfering compounds in blood serum and urine samples. Therefore, this electrochemical sensor can be applicable for the detection of tricyclic antidepressant drug IMPR in clinical and pharmaceutical analysis.