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Valderhaug VD, Ramstad OH, van de Wijdeven R, Heiney K, Nichele S, Sandvig A, Sandvig I. Micro-and mesoscale aspects of neurodegeneration in engineered human neural networks carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Front Cell Neurosci 2024; 18:1366098. [PMID: 38644975 PMCID: PMC11026646 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2024.1366098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 03/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/23/2024] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene have been widely linked to Parkinson's disease, where the G2019S variant has been shown to contribute uniquely to both familial and sporadic forms of the disease. LRRK2-related mutations have been extensively studied, yet the wide variety of cellular and network events related to these mutations remain poorly understood. The advancement and availability of tools for neural engineering now enable modeling of selected pathological aspects of neurodegenerative disease in human neural networks in vitro. Our study revealed distinct pathology associated dynamics in engineered human cortical neural networks carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation compared to healthy isogenic control neural networks. The neurons carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation self-organized into networks with aberrant morphology and mitochondrial dynamics, affecting emerging structure-function relationships both at the micro-and mesoscale. Taken together, the findings of our study points toward an overall heightened metabolic demand in networks carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation, as well as a resilience to change in response to perturbation, compared to healthy isogenic controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vibeke Devold Valderhaug
- Department of Research and Innovation, Møre and Romsdal Hospital Trust, Ålesund, Norway
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ola Huse Ramstad
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Rosanne van de Wijdeven
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Kristine Heiney
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, Oslo Metropolitan University (OsloMet), Oslo, Norway
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Information Technology and Electrical Engineering, NTNU, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Stefano Nichele
- Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Technology, Art and Design, Oslo Metropolitan University (OsloMet), Oslo, Norway
- Department of Computer Science and Communication, Østfold University College, Halden, Norway
| | - Axel Sandvig
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Division of Neuro, Head and Neck, Umeå University Hospital, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Community Medicine and Rehabilitation, Umeå University, Umeå, Sweden
- Department of Neurology and Clinical Neurophysiology, St Olav’s Hospital, Trondheim, Norway
| | - Ioanna Sandvig
- Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
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Protein phosphatase 2A holoenzymes regulate leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 phosphorylation and accumulation. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 157:105426. [PMID: 34144124 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
LRRK2 is a highly phosphorylated multidomain protein and mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 are a major genetic determinant of Parkinson's disease (PD). Dephosphorylation at LRRK2's S910/S935/S955/S973 phosphosite cluster is observed in several conditions including in sporadic PD brain, in several disease mutant forms of LRRK2 and after pharmacological LRRK2 kinase inhibition. However, the mechanism of LRRK2 dephosphorylation is poorly understood. We performed a phosphatome-wide reverse genetics screen to identify phosphatases involved in the dephosphorylation of the LRRK2 phosphosite S935. Candidate phosphatases selected from the primary screen were tested in mammalian cells, Xenopus oocytes and in vitro. Effects of PP2A on endogenous LRRK2 phosphorylation were examined via expression modulation with CRISPR/dCas9. Our screening revealed LRRK2 phosphorylation regulators linked to the PP1 and PP2A holoenzyme complexes as well as CDC25 phosphatases. We showed that dephosphorylation induced by different kinase inhibitor triggered relocalisation of phosphatases PP1 and PP2A in LRRK2 subcellular compartments in HEK-293 T cells. We also demonstrated that LRRK2 is an authentic substrate of PP2A both in vitro and in Xenopus oocytes. We singled out the PP2A holoenzyme PPP2CA:PPP2R2 as a powerful phosphoregulator of pS935-LRRK2. Furthermore, we demonstrated that this specific PP2A holoenzyme induces LRRK2 relocalization and triggers LRRK2 ubiquitination, suggesting its involvement in LRRK2 clearance. The identification of the PPP2CA:PPP2R2 complex regulating LRRK2 S910/S935/S955/S973 phosphorylation paves the way for studies refining PD therapeutic strategies that impact LRRK2 phosphorylation.
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Vallée A, Vallée JN, Lecarpentier Y. Potential role of cannabidiol in Parkinson's disease by targeting the WNT/β-catenin pathway, oxidative stress and inflammation. Aging (Albany NY) 2021; 13:10796-10813. [PMID: 33848261 PMCID: PMC8064164 DOI: 10.18632/aging.202951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/26/2021] [Indexed: 04/11/2023]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a major neurodegenerative disease (ND), presenting a progressive degeneration of the nervous system characterized by a loss of dopamine in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Recent findings have shown that oxidative stress and inflammation play key roles in the development of PD. However, therapies remain uncertain and research for new treatment is of the utmost importance. This review focuses on the potential effects of using cannabidiol (CBD) as a potential therapeutic strategy for the treatment of PD and on some of the presumed mechanisms by which CBD provides its beneficial properties. CBD medication downregulates GSK-3β, the main inhibitor of the WNT/β-catenin pathway. Activation of the WNT/β-catenin could be associated with the control of oxidative stress and inflammation. Future prospective clinical trials should focus on CBD and its multiple interactions in the treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Vallée
- Department of Clinical Research and Innovation (DRCI), Foch Hospital, Suresnes 92150, France
| | - Jean-Noël Vallée
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Amiens Picardie, Université Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), Amiens 80054, France
- Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, Université de Poitiers, Poitiers 86000, France
| | - Yves Lecarpentier
- Centre de Recherche Clinique, Grand Hôpital de l’Est Francilien (GHEF), Meaux 77100, France
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Vallée A, Vallée JN, Lecarpentier Y. Parkinson's Disease: Potential Actions of Lithium by Targeting the WNT/β-Catenin Pathway, Oxidative Stress, Inflammation and Glutamatergic Pathway. Cells 2021; 10:230. [PMID: 33503974 PMCID: PMC7911116 DOI: 10.3390/cells10020230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is one of the major neurodegenerative diseases (ND) which presents a progressive neurodegeneration characterized by loss of dopamine in the substantia nigra pars compacta. It is well known that oxidative stress, inflammation and glutamatergic pathway play key roles in the development of PD. However, therapies remain uncertain and research for new treatment is mandatory. This review focuses on the potential effects of lithium, as a potential therapeutic strategy, on PD and some of the presumed mechanisms by which lithium provides its benefit properties. Lithium medication downregulates GSK-3beta, the main inhibitor of the WNT/β-catenin pathway. The stimulation of the WNT/β-catenin could be associated with the control of oxidative stress, inflammation, and glutamatergic pathway. Future prospective clinical trials could focus on lithium and its different and multiple interactions in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Vallée
- Department of Clinical Research and Innovation (DRCI), Hôpital Foch, 92150 Suresnes, France
| | - Jean-Noël Vallée
- Centre Hospitalier Universitaire (CHU) Amiens Picardie, Université Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), 80054 Amiens, France;
- Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications (LMA), UMR CNRS 7348, Université de Poitiers, 86021 Poitiers, France
| | - Yves Lecarpentier
- Centre de Recherche Clinique, Grand Hôpital de l’Est Francilien (GHEF), 6-8 rue Saint-Fiacre, 77100 Meaux, France;
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Yan X, Li M, Luo Z, Zhao Y, Zhang H, Chen L. VIP Induces Changes in the F-/G-Actin Ratio of Schlemm's Canal Endothelium via LRRK2 Transcriptional Regulation. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2021; 61:45. [PMID: 32572455 PMCID: PMC7415318 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.61.6.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose A previous study reported that vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) can regulate the cytoskeleton of Schlemm's canal (SC) endothelium and expand the SC lumen in a rat glaucoma model. In this study, we aimed to investigate the molecular mechanism of VIP on cytoskeleton regulation. Methods During in vivo experiments in rats, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) expression and the ratio of F-actin to G-actin (F-/G-actin) surrounding SC were examined by immunofluorescence after the application of VIP. For in vitro experiments in human umbilical vein endothelial cells, both quantitative PCR (qPCR) and western blotting were performed to evaluate Sp1 and LRRK2 expression after the application of VIP (and Sp1/LRRK2 inhibitor). In addition, the F-/G-actin ratio was examined by both immunofluorescence and western blotting after the application of VIP (and LRRK2 inhibitor). Results VIP induced increases in the expression of LRRK2 both in vivo and in vitro and the nuclear translocation of Sp1 in vitro. The application of Sp1 inhibitor abolished the increase in LRRK2 expression induced by VIP in vitro. In addition, VIP changed the F-/G-actin ratio, and this effect was abolished by the LRRK2 inhibitor both in vivo and in vitro. Conclusions VIP increased the expression of LRRK2, and this regulation was due to the nuclear translocation of Sp1. VIP further changed the F-/G-actin ratio and regulated the balance between the stabilization and destabilization of the F-actin architecture. This study elucidates a novel mechanism by which VIP regulates the actin cytoskeleton of SC endothelium via the Sp1–LRRK2 pathway, suggesting a potential novel treatment strategy for glaucoma.
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Identification of Targets from LRRK2 Rescue Phenotypes. Cells 2021; 10:cells10010076. [PMID: 33466414 PMCID: PMC7824855 DOI: 10.3390/cells10010076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 12/31/2020] [Accepted: 12/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is an age-dependent neurodegenerative condition. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) mutations are the most frequent cause of sporadic and autosomal dominant PD. The exact role of LRRK2 protective variants (R1398H, N551K) together with a pathogenic mutant (G2019S) in aging and neurodegeneration is unknown. We generated the following myc-tagged UAS-LRRK2 transgenic Drosophila: LRRK2 (WT), N551K, R1398H, G2019S single allele, and double-mutants (N551K/G2019S or R1398H/G2019S). The protective variants alone were able to suppress the phenotypic effects caused by the pathogenic LRRK2 mutation. Next, we conducted RNA-sequencing using mRNA isolated from dopaminergic neurons of these different groups of transgenic Drosophila. Using pathway enrichment analysis, we identified the top 10 modules (p < 0.05), with “LRRK2 in neurons in Parkinson’s disease” among the candidates. Further dissection of this pathway identified the most significantly modulated gene nodes such as eEF1A2, ACTB, eEF1A, and actin cytoskeleton reorganization. The induction of the pathway was successfully restored by the R1398H protective variant and R1398H-G2019S or N551K-G2019S rescue experiments. The oxidoreductase family of genes was also active in the pathogenic mutant and restored in protective and rescue variants. In summary, we provide in vivo evidence supporting the neuroprotective effects of LRRK2 variants. RNA sequencing of dopaminergic neurons identified upregulation of specific gene pathways in the Drosophila carrying the pathogenic variant, and this was restored in the rescue phenotypes. Using protective gene variants, our study identifies potential new targets and provides proof of principle of a new therapeutic approach that will further our understanding of aging and neurodegeneration in PD.
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Palese F, Pontis S, Realini N, Piomelli D. NAPE-specific phospholipase D regulates LRRK2 association with neuronal membranes. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2020; 90:217-238. [PMID: 33706934 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2020.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
N-acylphosphatidylethanolamines (NAPEs) are glycerophospholipid precursors for bioactive lipid amides and potential regulators of membrane function. They are hydrolyzed by NAPE-specific phospholipase D (NAPE-PLD) and have been implicated in neurodegenerative disorders such as Parkinson's disease. Here, we used siRNA-mediated silencing of NAPE-PLD in human SH-SY5Y cells and NAPE-PLD-/- mice to determine whether NAPEs influence the membrane association of LRRK2, a multifunctional protein kinase that is frequently mutated in persons with sporadic Parkinson's disease. NAPE-PLD deletion caused a significant accumulation of non-metabolized NAPEs, which was accompanied by a shift of LRRK2 from membrane to cytosol and a reduction in total LRRK2 content. Conversely, exposure of intact SH-SY5Y cells to bacterial PLD lowered NAPE levels and enhanced LRRK2 association with membranes. The results suggest that NAPE-PLD activity may contribute to the control of LRRK2 localization by regulating membrane NAPE levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca Palese
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy; Departments of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Silvia Pontis
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Natalia Realini
- Department of Drug Discovery and Development, Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy
| | - Daniele Piomelli
- Departments of Anatomy and Neurobiology, Pharmacology and Biological Chemistry, University of California, Irvine, CA, United States.
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Baicalin Represses C/EBP β via Its Antioxidative Effect in Parkinson's Disease. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2020; 2020:8951907. [PMID: 32566108 PMCID: PMC7261332 DOI: 10.1155/2020/8951907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Revised: 04/19/2020] [Accepted: 05/02/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a neurodegenerative disease characterized by the gradual loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons in the substantia nigra (SN) and the formation of intracellular Lewy bodies (LB) in the brain, which aggregates α-synuclein (α-Syn) as the main component. The interest of flavonoids as potential neuroprotective agents is increasing due to its high efficiency and low side effects. Baicalin is one of the flavonoid compounds, which is a predominant flavonoid isolated from Scutellaria baicalensis Georgi. However, the key molecular mechanism by which Baicalin can prevent the PD pathogenesis remains unclear. In this study, we used bioinformatic assessment including Gene Ontology (GO) to elucidate the correlation between oxidative stress and PD pathogenesis. RNA-Seq methods were used to examine the global expression profiles of noncoding RNAs and found that C/EBPβ expression was upregulated in PD patients compared with healthy controls. Interestingly, Baicalin could protect DA neurons against reactive oxygen species (ROS) and decreased C/EBPβ and α-synuclein expression in pLVX-Tet3G-α-synuclein SH-SY5Y cells. In a 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP) induced PD mouse model, the results revealed that treatment with Baicalin improved the PD model's behavioral performance and reduced dopaminergic neuron loss in the substantia nigra, associated with the inactivation of proinflammatory cytokines and oxidative stress. Hence, our study supported that Baicalin repressed C/EBPβ via redox homeostasis, which may be an effective potential treatment for PD.
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Gloeckner CJ, Porras P. Guilt-by-Association - Functional Insights Gained From Studying the LRRK2 Interactome. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:485. [PMID: 32508578 PMCID: PMC7251075 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2020] [Accepted: 04/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
The Parkinson's disease-associated Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a complex multi-domain protein belonging to the Roco protein family, a unique group of G-proteins. Variants of this gene are associated with an increased risk of Parkinson's disease. Besides its well-characterized enzymatic activities, conferred by its GTPase and kinase domains, and a central dimerization domain, it contains four predicted repeat domains, which are, based on their structure, commonly involved in protein-protein interactions (PPIs). In the past decades, tremendous progress has been made in determining comprehensive interactome maps for the human proteome. Knowledge of PPIs has been instrumental in assigning functions to proteins involved in human disease and helped to understand the connectivity between different disease pathways and also significantly contributed to the functional understanding of LRRK2. In addition to an increased kinase activity observed for proteins containing PD-associated variants, various studies helped to establish LRRK2 as a large scaffold protein in the interface between cytoskeletal dynamics and the vesicular transport. This review first discusses a number of specific LRRK2-associated PPIs for which a functional consequence can at least be speculated upon, and then considers the representation of LRRK2 protein interactions in public repositories, providing an outlook on open research questions and challenges in this field.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian Johannes Gloeckner
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE), Tübingen, Germany
- Center for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, Core Facility for Medical Bioanalytics, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Pablo Porras
- European Molecular Biology Laboratory, European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Cherry Hinton, United Kingdom
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Chen X, Xie C, Tian W, Sun L, Wang Z, Hawes S, Chang L, Kung J, Ding J, Chen S, Le W, Cai H. Parkinson's disease-related Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 modulates nuclear morphology and genomic stability in striatal projection neurons during aging. Mol Neurodegener 2020; 15:12. [PMID: 32075681 PMCID: PMC7031993 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-020-00360-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2019] [Accepted: 02/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Multiple missense mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are associated with familial forms of late onset Parkinson's disease (PD), the most common age-related movement disorder. The dysfunction of dopamine transmission contributes to PD-related motor symptoms. Interestingly, LRRK2 is more abundant in the dopaminoceptive striatal spiny projection neurons (SPNs) compared to the dopamine-producing nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. Aging is the most important risk factor for PD and other neurodegenerative diseases. However, whether LRRK2 modulates the aging of SPNs remains to be determined. METHODS We conducted RNA-sequencing (RNA-seq) analyses of striatal tissues isolated from Lrrk2 knockout (Lrrk2-/-) and control (Lrrk2+/+) mice at 2 and 12 months of age. We examined SPN nuclear DNA damage and epigenetic modifications; SPN nuclear, cell body and dendritic morphology; and the locomotion and motor skill learning of Lrrk2+/+ and Lrrk2-/- mice from 2 to 24 months of age. Considering the strength of cell cultures for future mechanistic studies, we also performed preliminary studies in primary cultured SPNs derived from the Lrrk2+/+ and Lrrk2-/- mice as well as the PD-related Lrrk2 G2019S and R1441C mutant mice. RESULTS Lrrk2-deficiency accelerated nuclear hypertrophy and induced dendritic atrophy, soma hypertrophy and nuclear invagination in SPNs during aging. Additionally, increased nuclear DNA damage and abnormal histone methylations were also observed in aged Lrrk2-/- striatal neurons, together with alterations of molecular pathways involved in regulating neuronal excitability, genome stability and protein homeostasis. Furthermore, both the PD-related Lrrk2 G2019S mutant and LRRK2 kinase inhibitors caused nuclear hypertrophy, while the Lrrk2 R1441C mutant and γ-Aminobutyric acid type A receptor (GABA-AR) inhibitors promoted nuclear invagination in the cultured SPNs. On the other hand, inhibition of neuron excitability prevented the formation of nuclear invagination in the cultured Lrrk2-/- and R1441C SPNs. CONCLUSIONS Our findings support an important physiological function of LRRK2 in maintaining nuclear structure integrity and genomic stability during the normal aging process, suggesting that PD-related LRRK2 mutations may cause the deterioration of neuronal structures through accelerating the aging process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xi Chen
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
- Clinical Research Center on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Chengsong Xie
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Wotu Tian
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 20025 China
| | - Lixin Sun
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Zheng Wang
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Sarah Hawes
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Lisa Chang
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Justin Kung
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
| | - Jinhui Ding
- Computational Biology Group, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892 USA
| | - Shengdi Chen
- Department of Neurology, Ruijin Hospital Affiliated to Shanghai Jiao Tong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, 20025 China
| | - Weidong Le
- Clinical Research Center on Neurological Diseases, the First Affiliated Hospital, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, 116011 People’s Republic of China
| | - Huaibin Cai
- Transgenic Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Building 35, Room 1A112, MSC 3707, 35 Convent Drive, Bethesda, MD 20892–3707 USA
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Roco Proteins and the Parkinson's Disease-Associated LRRK2. Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:ijms19124074. [PMID: 30562929 PMCID: PMC6320773 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19124074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2018] [Revised: 12/11/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Small G-proteins are structurally-conserved modules that function as molecular on-off switches. They function in many different cellular processes with differential specificity determined by the unique effector-binding surfaces, which undergo conformational changes during the switching action. These switches are typically standalone monomeric modules that form transient heterodimers with specific effector proteins in the 'on' state, and cycle to back to the monomeric conformation in the 'off' state. A new class of small G-proteins called "Roco" was discovered about a decade ago; this class is distinct from the typical G-proteins in several intriguing ways. Their switch module resides within a polypeptide chain of a large multi-domain protein, always adjacent to a unique domain called COR, and its effector kinase often resides within the same polypeptide. As such, the mechanisms of action of the Roco G-proteins are likely to differ from those of the typical G-proteins. Understanding these mechanisms is important because aberrant activity in the human Roco protein LRRK2 is associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease. This review provides an update on the current state of our understanding of the Roco G-proteins and the prospects of targeting them for therapeutic purposes.
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Jamebozorgi K, Taghizadeh E, Rostami D, Pormasoumi H, Barreto GE, Hayat SMG, Sahebkar A. Cellular and Molecular Aspects of Parkinson Treatment: Future Therapeutic Perspectives. Mol Neurobiol 2018; 56:4799-4811. [PMID: 30397850 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-018-1419-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2018] [Accepted: 10/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is a neurodegenerative disorder accompanied by depletion of dopamine and loss of dopaminergic neurons in the brain that is believed to be responsible for the motor and non-motor symptoms in this disease. The main drug prescribed for Parkinsonian patients is L-dopa, which can be converted to dopamine by passing through the blood-brain barrier. Although L-dopa is able to improve motor function and improve the quality of life in the patients, there is inter-individual variability and some patients do not achieve the therapeutic effect. Variations in treatment response and side effects of current drugs have convinced scientists to think of treating Parkinson's disease at the cellular and molecular level. Molecular and cellular therapy for Parkinson's disease include (i) cell transplantation therapy with human embryonic stem (ES) cells, human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells and human fetal mesencephalic tissue, (ii) immunological and inflammatory therapy which is done using antibodies, and (iii) gene therapy with AADC-TH-GCH gene therapy, viral vector-mediated gene delivery, RNA interference-based therapy, CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing system, and alternative methods such as optogenetics and chemogenetics. Although these methods currently have a series of challenges, they seem to be promising techniques for Parkinson's treatment in future. In this study, these prospective therapeutic approaches are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Eskandar Taghizadeh
- Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran.,Departments of Medical Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran
| | - Daryoush Rostami
- Department of School Allied, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - Hosein Pormasoumi
- Faculty of Medicine, Zabol University of Medical Sciences, Zabol, Iran
| | - George E Barreto
- Departamento de Nutrición y Bioquímica, Facultad de Ciencias, Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.,Instituto de Ciencias Biomédicas, Universidad Autónoma de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | | | - Amirhossein Sahebkar
- Neurogenic Inflammation Research Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Biotechnology Research Center, Pharmaceutical Technology Institute, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,School of Pharmacy, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran. .,Department of Medical Biotechnology, School of Medicine, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, P.O. Box: 91779-48564, Mashhad, Iran.
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Cao J, Zhuang Y, Zhang J, Zhang Z, Yuan S, Zhang P, Li H, Li X, Shen H, Wang Z, Chen G. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 aggravates secondary brain injury induced by intracerebral hemorrhage in rats by regulating the P38 MAPK/Drosha pathway. Neurobiol Dis 2018; 119:53-64. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2018.07.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2018] [Revised: 07/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
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14
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Vallée A, Lecarpentier Y, Guillevin R, Vallée JN. Thermodynamics in Neurodegenerative Diseases: Interplay Between Canonical WNT/Beta-Catenin Pathway-PPAR Gamma, Energy Metabolism and Circadian Rhythms. Neuromolecular Med 2018; 20:174-204. [PMID: 29572723 DOI: 10.1007/s12017-018-8486-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2017] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Entropy production rate is increased by several metabolic and thermodynamics abnormalities in neurodegenerative diseases (NDs). Irreversible processes are quantified by changes in the entropy production rate. This review is focused on the opposing interactions observed in NDs between the canonical WNT/beta-catenin pathway and PPAR gamma and their metabolic and thermodynamic implications. In amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and Huntington's disease, WNT/beta-catenin pathway is upregulated, whereas PPAR gamma is downregulated. In Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, WNT/beta-catenin pathway is downregulated while PPAR gamma is upregulated. The dysregulation of the canonical WNT/beta-catenin pathway is responsible for the modification of thermodynamics behaviors of metabolic enzymes. Upregulation of WNT/beta-catenin pathway leads to aerobic glycolysis, named Warburg effect, through activated enzymes, such as glucose transporter (Glut), pyruvate kinase M2 (PKM2), pyruvate dehydrogenase kinase 1(PDK1), monocarboxylate lactate transporter 1 (MCT-1), lactic dehydrogenase kinase-A (LDH-A) and inactivation of pyruvate dehydrogenase complex (PDH). Downregulation of WNT/beta-catenin pathway leads to oxidative stress and cell death through inactivation of Glut, PKM2, PDK1, MCT-1, LDH-A but activation of PDH. In addition, in NDs, PPAR gamma is dysregulated, whereas it contributes to the regulation of several key circadian genes. NDs show many dysregulation in the mediation of circadian clock genes and so of circadian rhythms. Thermodynamics rhythms operate far-from-equilibrium and partly regulate interactions between WNT/beta-catenin pathway and PPAR gamma. In NDs, metabolism, thermodynamics and circadian rhythms are tightly interrelated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandre Vallée
- DRCI, Hôpital Foch, Suresnes, France.
- LMA (Laboratoire de Mathématiques et Applications) CNRS 7348, University of Poitiers, 11 Boulevard Marie et Pierre Curie, Poitiers, France.
| | - Yves Lecarpentier
- Centre de Recherche Clinique, Grand Hôpital de l'Est Francilien, Meaux, France
| | - Rémy Guillevin
- DACTIM, UMR CNRS 7348, Université de Poitiers et CHU de Poitiers, Poitiers, France
| | - Jean-Noël Vallée
- DRCI, Hôpital Foch, Suresnes, France
- CHU Amiens Picardie, Université Picardie Jules Verne (UPJV), Amiens, France
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15
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Sheng D, See K, Hu X, Yu D, Wang Y, Liu Q, Li F, Lu M, Zhao J, Liu J. Disruption of LRRK2 in Zebrafish leads to hyperactivity and weakened antibacterial response. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2018; 497:1104-1109. [PMID: 29499195 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2018.02.186] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2018] [Accepted: 02/25/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
As a protein with complex domain structure and roles in kinase, GTPase and scaffolding, LRRK2 is believed to be an important orchestration node leading to several cascades of signal transduction rather than one specific pathway. LRRK2 variants were found to be associated with Parkinson's disease, Crohn's disease and leprosy. Here we disrupt LRRK2 in zebrafish and found hyperactivity rather than hypoactivity in adult zebrafish mutants. By RNA-seq we found genes involved in infectious disease and immunological disease were notably affected. Functional studies also revealed a weakened antibacterial response in LRRK2 mutant. This mutant can be further explored for revealing molecular mechanisms and modeling of LRRK2 related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Xu Hu
- Hangzhou Normal University, China
| | | | | | | | - Fei Li
- Hangzhou Normal University, China
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16
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Han KA, Shin WH, Jung S, Seol W, Seo H, Ko C, Chung KC. Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 exacerbates neuronal cytotoxicity through phosphorylation of histone deacetylase 3 and histone deacetylation. Hum Mol Genet 2017; 26:1-18. [PMID: 27798112 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddw363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Accepted: 10/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is characterized by slow, progressive degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra. The cause of neuronal death in PD is largely unknown, but several genetic loci, including leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), have been identified. LRRK2 has guanosine triphosphatase (GTPase) and kinase activities, and mutations in LRRK2 are the major cause of autosomal-dominant familial PD. Histone deacetylases (HDACs) remove acetyl groups from lysine residues on histone tails, promoting transcriptional repression via condensation of chromatin. Here, we demonstrate that LRRK2 binds to and directly phosphorylates HDAC3 at Ser-424, thereby stimulating HDAC activity. Specifically, LRRK2 promoted the deacetylation of Lys-5 and Lys-12 on histone H4, causing repression of gene transcription. Moreover, LRRK2 stimulated nuclear translocation of HDAC3 via the phoshorylation of karyopherin subunit α2 and α6. HDAC3 phosphorylation and its nuclear translocation were increased in response to 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) treatment. LRRK2 also inhibited myocyte-specific enhancer factor 2D activity, which is required for neuronal survival. LRRK2 ultimately promoted 6-OHDA-induced cell death via positive modulation of HDAC3. These findings suggest that LRRK2 affects epigenetic histone modification and neuronal survival by facilitating HDAC3 activity and regulating its localization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kyung Ah Han
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Woo Hyun Shin
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Sungyeon Jung
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Wongi Seol
- InAm Neuroscience Research Center, Sanbon Medical Center, College of Medicine, Wonkwang University, Gunpo-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Hyemyung Seo
- Department of Molecular and Life Sciences, College of Science and Technology, Hanyang University, Ansan-si, Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea
| | - CheMyong Ko
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL, USA
| | - Kwang Chul Chung
- Department of Systems Biology, College of Life Science and Biotechnology, Yonsei University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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17
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A proteomic analysis of LRRK2 binding partners reveals interactions with multiple signaling components of the WNT/PCP pathway. Mol Neurodegener 2017; 12:54. [PMID: 28697798 PMCID: PMC5505151 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-017-0193-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Autosomal-dominant mutations in the Park8 gene encoding Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) have been identified to cause up to 40% of the genetic forms of Parkinson's disease. However, the function and molecular pathways regulated by LRRK2 are largely unknown. It has been shown that LRRK2 serves as a scaffold during activation of WNT/β-catenin signaling via its interaction with the β-catenin destruction complex, DVL1-3 and LRP6. In this study, we examine whether LRRK2 also interacts with signaling components of the WNT/Planar Cell Polarity (WNT/PCP) pathway, which controls the maturation of substantia nigra dopaminergic neurons, the main cell type lost in Parkinson's disease patients. METHODS Co-immunoprecipitation and tandem mass spectrometry was performed in a mouse substantia nigra cell line (SN4741) and human HEK293T cell line in order to identify novel LRRK2 binding partners. Inhibition of the WNT/β-catenin reporter, TOPFlash, was used as a read-out of WNT/PCP pathway activation. The capacity of LRRK2 to regulate WNT/PCP signaling in vivo was tested in Xenopus laevis' early development. RESULTS Our proteomic analysis identified that LRRK2 interacts with proteins involved in WNT/PCP signaling such as the PDZ domain-containing protein GIPC1 and Integrin-linked kinase (ILK) in dopaminergic cells in vitro and in the mouse ventral midbrain in vivo. Moreover, co-immunoprecipitation analysis revealed that LRRK2 binds to two core components of the WNT/PCP signaling pathway, PRICKLE1 and CELSR1, as well as to FLOTILLIN-2 and CULLIN-3, which regulate WNT secretion and inhibit WNT/β-catenin signaling, respectively. We also found that PRICKLE1 and LRRK2 localize in signalosomes and act as dual regulators of WNT/PCP and β-catenin signaling. Accordingly, analysis of the function of LRRK2 in vivo, in X. laevis revelaed that LRKK2 not only inhibits WNT/β-catenin pathway, but induces a classical WNT/PCP phenotype in vivo. CONCLUSIONS Our study shows for the first time that LRRK2 activates the WNT/PCP signaling pathway through its interaction to multiple WNT/PCP components. We suggest that LRRK2 regulates the balance between WNT/β-catenin and WNT/PCP signaling, depending on the binding partners. Since this balance is crucial for homeostasis of midbrain dopaminergic neurons, we hypothesize that its alteration may contribute to the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease.
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18
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Son MY, Sim H, Son YS, Jung KB, Lee MO, Oh JH, Chung SK, Jung CR, Kim J. Distinctive genomic signature of neural and intestinal organoids from familial Parkinson's disease patient-derived induced pluripotent stem cells. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2017; 43:584-603. [PMID: 28235153 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2016] [Revised: 01/22/2017] [Accepted: 02/19/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
AIMS The leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) G2019S mutation is the most common genetic cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). There is compelling evidence that PD is not only a brain disease but also a gastrointestinal disorder; nonetheless, its pathogenesis remains unclear. We aimed to develop human neural and intestinal tissue models of PD patients harbouring an LRRK2 mutation to understand the link between LRRK2 and PD pathology by investigating the gene expression signature. METHODS We generated PD patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) carrying an LRRK2 G2019S mutation (LK2GS) and then differentiated into three-dimensional (3D) human neuroectodermal spheres (hNESs) and human intestinal organoids (hIOs). To unravel the gene and signalling networks associated with LK2GS, we analysed differentially expressed genes in the microarray data by functional clustering, gene ontology (GO) and pathway analyses. RESULTS The expression profiles of LK2GS were distinct from those of wild-type controls in hNESs and hIOs. The most represented GO biological process in hNESs and hIOs was synaptic transmission, specifically synaptic vesicle trafficking, some defects of which are known to be related to PD. The results were further validated in four independent PD-specific hNESs and hIOs by microarray and qRT-PCR analysis. CONCLUSION We provide the first evidence that LK2GS also causes significant changes in gene expression in the intestinal cells. These hNES and hIO models from the same genetic background of PD patients could be invaluable resources for understanding PD pathophysiology and for advancing the complexity of in vitro models with 3D expandable organoids.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-Y Son
- Stem Cell Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.,Department of functional genomics, University of Science & Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - H Sim
- Stem Cell Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.,Department of functional genomics, University of Science & Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - Y S Son
- Stem Cell Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.,Department of functional genomics, University of Science & Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - K B Jung
- Stem Cell Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.,Department of functional genomics, University of Science & Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - M-O Lee
- Immunotherapy Convergence Research Center, KRIBB, 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea
| | - J-H Oh
- Korea Institute of Toxicology, Daejeon, 34114, Republic of Korea.,Department of human and environmental toxicology, University of Science & Technology, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - S-K Chung
- Medical Research Division, Korea Institute of Oriental Medicine, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34054, Republic of Korea
| | - C-R Jung
- Stem Cell Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.,Department of functional genomics, University of Science & Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
| | - J Kim
- Stem Cell Research Center, Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology (KRIBB), 125 Gwahak-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34141, Republic of Korea.,Department of functional genomics, University of Science & Technology, 217 Gajeong-ro, Yuseong-gu, Daejeon, 34113, Republic of Korea
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19
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LRRK2: An Emerging New Molecule in the Enteric Neuronal System That Quantitatively Regulates Neuronal Peptides and IgA in the Gut. Dig Dis Sci 2017; 62:903-912. [PMID: 28168579 DOI: 10.1007/s10620-017-4476-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2016] [Accepted: 01/25/2017] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a recently discovered molecule associated with familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease. It regulates many central neuronal functions such as cell proliferation, apoptosis, autophagy, and axonal extension. However, in contrast to the well-documented function of LRRK2 in central neurons, it is unclear whether LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons and affects the physiology of the gut. AIMS By examining LRRK2-KO mice, this study investigated whether enteric neurons express LRRK2 and whether intestinal neuronal peptides and IgA are quantitatively changed. METHODS Intestinal protein lysates and sections prepared from male C57BL/6 J mice were analyzed by Western blotting and immunostaining using anti-LRRK2 antibody, respectively. Intestinal neuronal peptide-mRNAs were quantified by real-time PCR in wild-type mice and LRRK2-KO mice. Intestinal IgA was quantified by ELISA. Lamina propria mononuclear cells (LPMCs) were analyzed by flow cytometry to evaluate the ratio of B1 to B2 B cells. RESULTS Western analysis and immunostaining revealed that LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons. The amounts of mRNA for vasoactive intestinal peptide, neuropeptide Y, and substance P were increased in LRRK2-KO mice accompanied by an increment of IgA. However, the intestinal B cell subpopulations were not altered in LRRK2-KO mice. CONCLUSIONS For the first time, we have revealed that LRRK2 is expressed in enteric neurons and related to quantitative alterations of neuronal peptide and IgA. Our study highlights the importance of LRRK2 in enteric neurons as well as central neurons.
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20
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Pathogenic LRRK2 variants are gain-of-function mutations that enhance LRRK2-mediated repression of β-catenin signaling. Mol Neurodegener 2017; 12:9. [PMID: 28103901 PMCID: PMC5248453 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-017-0153-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2016] [Accepted: 01/06/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND LRRK2 mutations and risk variants increase susceptibility to inherited and idiopathic Parkinson's disease, while recent studies have identified potential protective variants. This, and the fact that LRRK2 mutation carriers develop symptoms and brain pathology almost indistinguishable from idiopathic Parkinson's disease, has led to enormous interest in this protein. LRRK2 has been implicated in a range of cellular events, but key among them is canonical Wnt signalling, which results in increased levels of transcriptionally active β-catenin. This pathway is critical for the development and survival of the midbrain dopaminergic neurones typically lost in Parkinson's disease. METHODS Here we use Lrrk2 knockout mice and fibroblasts to investigate the effect of loss of Lrrk2 on canonical Wnt signalling in vitro and in vivo. Micro-computed tomography was used to study predicted tibial strength, while pulldown assays were employed to measure brain β-catenin levels. A combination of luciferase assays, immunofluorescence and co-immunoprecipitation were performed to measure canonical Wnt activity and investigate the relationship between LRRK2 and β-catenin. TOPflash assays are also used to study the effects of LRRK2 kinase inhibition and pathogenic and protective LRRK2 mutations on Wnt signalling. Data were tested by Analysis of Variance. RESULTS Loss of Lrrk2 causes a dose-dependent increase in the levels of transcriptionally active β-catenin in the brain, and alters tibial bone architecture, decreasing the predicted risk of fracture. Lrrk2 knockout cells display increased TOPflash and Axin2 promoter activities, both basally and following Wnt activation. Consistently, over-expressed LRRK2 was found to bind β-catenin and repress TOPflash activation. Some pathogenic LRRK2 mutations and risk variants further suppressed TOPflash, whereas the protective R1398H variant increased Wnt signalling activity. LRRK2 kinase inhibitors affected canonical Wnt signalling differently due to off-targeting; however, specific LRRK2 inhibition reduced canonical Wnt signalling similarly to pathogenic mutations. CONCLUSIONS Loss of LRRK2 causes increased canonical Wnt activity in vitro and in vivo. In agreement, over-expressed LRRK2 binds and represses β-catenin, suggesting LRRK2 may act as part of the β-catenin destruction complex. Since some pathogenic LRRK2 mutations enhance this effect while the protective R1398H variant relieves it, our data strengthen the notion that decreased canonical Wnt activity is central to Parkinson's disease pathogenesis.
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21
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Libro R, Bramanti P, Mazzon E. The role of the Wnt canonical signaling in neurodegenerative diseases. Life Sci 2016; 158:78-88. [PMID: 27370940 DOI: 10.1016/j.lfs.2016.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 117] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/26/2016] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The Wnt/β-catenin or Wnt canonical pathway controls multiple biological processes throughout development and adult life. Growing evidences have suggested that deregulation of the Wnt canonical pathway could be involved in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative diseases. The Wnt canonical signaling is a pathway tightly regulated, which activation results in the inhibition of the Glycogen Synthase Kinase 3β (GSK-3β) function and in increased β-catenin activity, that migrates into the nucleus, activating the transcription of the Wnt target genes. Conversely, when the Wnt canonical pathway is turned off, increased levels of GSK-3β promote β-catenin degradation. Hence, GSK-3β could be considered as a key regulator of the Wnt canonical pathway. Of note, GSK-3β has also been involved in the modulation of inflammation and apoptosis, determining the delicate balance between immune tolerance/inflammation and neuronal survival/neurodegeneration. In this review, we have summarized the current acknowledgements about the role of the Wnt canonical pathway in the pathogenesis of some neurodegenerative diseases including Alzheimer's disease, cerebral ischemia, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, multiple sclerosis and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, with particular regard to the main in vitro and in vivo studies in this field, by reviewing 85 research articles about.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosaliana Libro
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Via Provinciale Palermo, Contrada Casazza, 98124 Messina, Italy
| | - Placido Bramanti
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Via Provinciale Palermo, Contrada Casazza, 98124 Messina, Italy
| | - Emanuela Mazzon
- IRCCS Centro Neurolesi "Bonino-Pulejo", Via Provinciale Palermo, Contrada Casazza, 98124 Messina, Italy.
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Soboslay PT, Orlikowsky T, Huang X, Gille C, Spring B, Kocherscheidt L, Agossou A, Banla M, Bonin M, Köhler C. Cellular gene expression induced by parasite antigens and allergens in neonates from parasite-infected mothers. Mol Immunol 2016; 73:98-111. [PMID: 27062712 DOI: 10.1016/j.molimm.2016.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2015] [Revised: 03/28/2016] [Accepted: 03/30/2016] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Prenatal exposure to parasite antigens or allergens will influence the profile and strength of postnatal immune responses, such contact may tolerize and increase susceptibility to future infections or sensitize to environmental allergens. Exposure in utero to parasite antigens will distinctly alter cellular gene expression in newborns. Gene microarrays were applied to study gene expression in umbilical cord blood cell (UCBC) from parasite-exposed (Para-POS) and non-exposed (Para-NEG) neonates. UCBC were activated with antigens of helminth (Onchocerca volvulus), amoeba (Entamoeba histolytica) or allergens of mite (Dermatophagoides farinae). When UCBC from Para-POS and Para-NEG newborns were exposed to helminth antigens or allergens consistent differences occurred in the expression of genes encoding for MHC class I and II alleles, signal transducers of activation and transcription (STATs), cytokines, chemokines, immunoglobulin heavy and light chains, and molecules associated with immune regulation (SOCS, TLR, TGF), inflammation (TNF, CCR) and apoptosis (CASP). Expression of genes associated with innate immune responses were enhanced in Para-NEG, while in Para-POS, the expression of MHC class II and STAT genes was reduced. Within functional gene networks for cellular growth, proliferation and immune responses, Para-NEG neonates presented with significantly higher expression values than Para-POS. In Para-NEG newborns, the gene cluster and pathway analyses suggested that gene expression profiles may predispose for the development of immunological, hematological and dermatological disorders upon postnatal helminth parasite infection or allergen exposure. Thus, prenatal parasite contact will sensitize without generating aberrant inflammatory immune responses, and increased pro-inflammatory but decreased regulatory gene expression profiles will be present in those neonates lacking prenatal parasite antigen encounter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter T Soboslay
- Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen (UKT), Wilhelmstr. 27, 72074 Tübingen, Germany.
| | - Thorsten Orlikowsky
- Department of Neonatology, University Children's Hospital, UKT, Calwerstr. 7, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Xiangsheng Huang
- Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen (UKT), Wilhelmstr. 27, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Christian Gille
- Department of Neonatology, University Children's Hospital, UKT, Calwerstr. 7, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Bärbel Spring
- Department of Neonatology, University Children's Hospital, UKT, Calwerstr. 7, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Lars Kocherscheidt
- Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen (UKT), Wilhelmstr. 27, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Abram Agossou
- Faculté Mixte de Médicine et de Pharmacie, Université de Lomé, B.P. 1515 Lomé, Togo
| | - Meba Banla
- Faculté Mixte de Médicine et de Pharmacie, Université de Lomé, B.P. 1515 Lomé, Togo
| | - Michael Bonin
- Department of Medical Genetics, University of Tübingen (UKT), Calwerstr. 7, 72076 Tübingen, Germany
| | - Carsten Köhler
- Institute for Tropical Medicine, University of Tübingen (UKT), Wilhelmstr. 27, 72074 Tübingen, Germany
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Correlation between the biochemical pathways altered by mutated parkinson-related genes and chronic exposure to manganese. Neurotoxicology 2014; 44:314-25. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2014.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/11/2014] [Accepted: 08/11/2014] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Gene and MicroRNA transcriptome analysis of Parkinson's related LRRK2 mouse models. PLoS One 2014; 9:e85510. [PMID: 24427314 PMCID: PMC3888428 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0085510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Accepted: 11/28/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are the most frequent cause of genetic Parkinson’s disease (PD). The biological function of LRRK2 and how mutations lead to disease remain poorly defined. It has been proposed that LRRK2 could function in gene transcription regulation; however, this issue remains controversial. Here, we investigated in parallel gene and microRNA (miRNA) transcriptome profiles of three different LRRK2 mouse models. Striatal tissue was isolated from adult LRRK2 knockout (KO) mice, as well as mice expressing human LRRK2 wildtype (hLRRK2-WT) or the PD-associated R1441G mutation (hLRRK2-R1441G). We identified a total of 761 genes and 24 miRNAs that were misregulated in the absence of LRRK2 when a false discovery rate of 0.2 was applied. Notably, most changes in gene expression were modest (i.e., <2 fold). By real-time quantitative RT-PCR, we confirmed the variations of selected genes (e.g., adra2, syt2, opalin) and miRNAs (e.g., miR-16, miR-25). Surprisingly, little or no changes in gene expression were observed in mice expressing hLRRK2-WT or hLRRK2-R1441G when compared to non-transgenic controls. Nevertheless, a number of miRNAs were misexpressed in these models. Bioinformatics analysis identified several miRNA-dependent and independent networks dysregulated in LRRK2-deficient mice, including PD-related pathways. These results suggest that brain LRRK2 plays an overall modest role in gene transcription regulation in mammals; however, these effects seem context and RNA type-dependent. Our data thus set the stage for future investigations regarding LRRK2 function in PD development.
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Häbig K, Gellhaar S, Heim B, Djuric V, Giesert F, Wurst W, Walter C, Hentrich T, Riess O, Bonin M. LRRK2 guides the actin cytoskeleton at growth cones together with ARHGEF7 and Tropomyosin 4. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1832:2352-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2013] [Revised: 08/06/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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Verma M, Steer EK, Chu CT. ERKed by LRRK2: a cell biological perspective on hereditary and sporadic Parkinson's disease. Biochim Biophys Acta Mol Basis Dis 2013; 1842:1273-81. [PMID: 24225420 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbadis.2013.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2013] [Revised: 10/14/2013] [Accepted: 11/03/2013] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The leucine rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2/dardarin) is implicated in autosomal dominant familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD); mutations in LRRK2 account for up to 40% of PD cases in some populations. LRRK2 is a large protein with a kinase domain, a GTPase domain, and multiple potential protein interaction domains. As such, delineating the functional pathways for LRRK2 and mechanisms by which PD-linked variants contribute to age-related neurodegeneration could result in pharmaceutically tractable therapies. A growing number of recent studies implicate dysregulation of mitogen activated protein kinases 3 and 1 (also known as ERK1/2) as possible downstream mediators of mutant LRRK2 effects. As these master regulators of growth, differentiation, neuronal plasticity and cell survival have also been implicated in other PD models, a set of common cell biological pathways may contribute to neuronal susceptibility in PD. Here, we review the literature on several major cellular pathways impacted by LRRK2 mutations--autophagy, microtubule/cytoskeletal dynamics, and protein synthesis--in context of potential signaling crosstalk involving the ERK1/2 and Wnt signaling pathways. Emerging implications for calcium homeostasis, mitochondrial biology and synaptic dysregulation are discussed in relation to LRRK2 interactions with other PD gene products. It has been shown that substantia nigra neurons in human PD and Lewy body dementia patients exhibit cytoplasmic accumulations of ERK1/2 in mitochondria, autophagosomes and bundles of intracellular fibrils. Both experimental and human tissue data implicate pathogenic changes in ERK1/2 signaling in sporadic, toxin-based and mutant LRRK2 settings, suggesting engagement of common cell biological pathways by divergent PD etiologies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manish Verma
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Erin K Steer
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA
| | - Charleen T Chu
- Department of Pathology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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Berwick DC, Harvey K. LRRK2: an éminence grise of Wnt-mediated neurogenesis? Front Cell Neurosci 2013; 7:82. [PMID: 23754980 PMCID: PMC3668263 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2013.00082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2013] [Accepted: 05/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
The importance of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) to mature neurons is well-established, since mutations in PARK8, the gene encoding LRRK2, are the most common known cause of Parkinson’s disease. Nonetheless, despite the LRRK2 knockout mouse having no overt neurodevelopmental defect, numerous lines of in vitro data point toward a central role for this protein in neurogenesis. Roles for LRRK2 have been described in many key processes, including neurite outgrowth and the regulation of microtubule dynamics. Moreover, LRRK2 has been implicated in cell cycle control, suggesting additional roles in neurogenesis that precede terminal differentiation. However, we contend that the suggested function of LRRK2 as a scaffolding protein at the heart of numerous Wnt signaling cascades provides the most tantalizing link to neurogenesis in the developing brain. Numerous lines of evidence show a critical requirement for multiple Wnt pathways in the development of certain brain regions, not least the dopaminergic neurons of the ventral mid-brain. In conclusion, these observations indicate a function of LRRK2 as a subtle yet critical mediator of the action of Wnt ligands on developing neurons. We suggest that LRRK2 loss- or gain-of-function are likely modifiers of developmental phenotypes seen in animal models of Wnt signaling deregulation, a hypothesis that can be tested by cross-breeding relevant genetically modified experimental strains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Berwick
- Department of Pharmacology, University College London School of Pharmacy, University College London London, UK
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Roth JA, Eichhorn M. Down-regulation of LRRK2 in control and DAT transfected HEK cells increases manganese-induced oxidative stress and cell toxicity. Neurotoxicology 2013; 37:100-7. [PMID: 23628791 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2013.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 04/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The extra-pyramidal symptoms associated with manganism often overlap with that seen in Parkinsonism suggesting a common link between the two disorders. Since wide deviations are observed in susceptibility and characteristics of the symptoms observed in manganism, these differences may be due to underlying genetic variability. Genes linked to early onset of Parkinsonism which includes ATP13A2 and parkin have already been suggested to promote development of Mn toxicity. Of the other Parkinson-linked genes, mutations in LRRK2, an autosomal dominant gene, represent another likely candidate involved in the development of manganism. In this paper the effect of shRNA LRRK2 knock-down on Mn toxicity was examined in control and DAT transfected HEK293 cells. Results demonstrate that LRRK2 down-regulation potentiates Mn toxicity in both control and DAT-transfected cell as well as potentiates DA toxicity. Combined treatment of Mn and DA further augments cell toxicity, ROS production and JNK phosphorylation in LRRK2 deficient cells compared to controls. Consistent with studies demonstrating that LRRK2 plays a role in the phosphorylation of p38, our results similarly demonstrate a decrease in p38 activation in LRRK2 knock-down cells. Our findings suggest that null mutations in LRRK2 which cause Parkinsonism potentiate Mn toxicity and increase susceptibility to develop manganism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jerome A Roth
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14214, USA.
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Abstract
The PD (Parkinson's disease) protein LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) occurs in cells as a highly phosphorylated protein, with the majority of phosphosites clustering in the region between the ankyrin repeat and leucine-rich repeat domains. The observation that several pathogenic variants of LRRK2 display strongly reduced cellular phosphorylation suggests that phosphorylation of LRRK2 is involved in the PD pathological process. Furthermore, treatment of cells with inhibitors of LRRK2 kinase activity, which are currently considered as potential disease-modifying therapeutics for PD, leads to a rapid decrease in the phosphorylation levels of LRRK2. For these reasons, understanding the cellular role and regulation of LRRK2 as a kinase and as a substrate has become the focus of intense investigation. In the present review, we discuss what is currently known about the cellular phosphorylation of LRRK2 and how this relates to its function and dysfunction.
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Abstract
LRRK2 (leucine-rich repeat kinase 2) is a large protein encoding multiple functional domains, including two catalytically active domains, a kinase and a GTPase domain. The LRRK2 GTPase belongs to the Ras-GTPase superfamily of GTPases, more specifically to the ROC (Ras of complex proteins) subfamily. Studies with recombinant LRRK2 protein purified from eukaryotic cells have confirmed that LRRK2 binds guanine nucleotides and catalyses the hydrolysis of GTP to GDP. LRRK2 is linked to PD (Parkinson's disease) and GTPase activity is impaired for several PD mutants located in the ROC and COR (C-terminal of ROC) domains, indicating that it is involved in PD pathogenesis. Ras family GTPases are known to function as molecular switches, and several studies have explored this possibility for LRRK2. These studies show that there is interplay between the LRRK2 GTPase function and its kinase function, with most data pointing towards a role for the kinase domain as an upstream regulator of ROC. The GTPase function is therefore a pivotal functionality within the LRRK2-mediated signalling cascade which includes partners encoded by other LRRK2 domains as well as other cellular signalling partners. The present review examines what is known of the enzymatic properties of the LRRK2 GTPase, the interplay between ROC and other LRRK2 domains, and the interplay between ROC and other cellular proteins with the dual goal to understand how LRRK2 GTPase affects cellular functions and point to future research venues.
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Comprehensive cytogenomic profile of the in vitro neuronal model SH-SY5Y. Neurogenetics 2012; 14:63-70. [PMID: 23224213 PMCID: PMC3569589 DOI: 10.1007/s10048-012-0350-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2012] [Accepted: 11/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The widely studied SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma cell line provides a classic example of how a cancer cell line can be instrumental for discoveries of broad biological and clinical significance. An important feature of the SH-SY5Y cells is their ability to differentiate into a functionally mature neuronal phenotype. This property has conferred them the potential to be used as an in vitro model for studies of neurodegenerative and neurodevelopmental disorders. Here, we present a comprehensive assessment of the SH-SY5Y cytogenomic profile. Our results advocate for molecular cytogenetic data to inform the use of cancer cell lines in research.
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The importance of Wnt signalling for neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Biochem Soc Trans 2012; 40:1123-8. [DOI: 10.1042/bst20120122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
PD (Parkinson's disease) is a devastating progressive motor disorder with no available cure. Over the last two decades, an increasing number of genetic defects have been found that cause familial and idiopathic forms of PD. In parallel, the importance of Wnt signalling pathways for the healthy functioning of the adult brain and the dysregulation of these pathways in neurodegenerative disease has become apparent. Cell biological functions disrupted in PD are partially controlled by Wnt signalling pathways and proteins encoded by PARK genes have been shown to modify Wnt signalling. This suggests the prospect of targeting Wnt signalling pathways to modify PD progression.
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Berwick DC, Harvey K. LRRK2 functions as a Wnt signaling scaffold, bridging cytosolic proteins and membrane-localized LRP6. Hum Mol Genet 2012; 21:4966-79. [PMID: 22899650 PMCID: PMC3709196 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/dds342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in PARK8, encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), are a frequent cause of Parkinson's disease (PD). Nonetheless, the physiological role of LRRK2 remains unclear. Here, we demonstrate that LRRK2 participates in canonical Wnt signaling as a scaffold. LRRK2 interacts with key Wnt signaling proteins of the β-catenin destruction complex and dishevelled proteins in vivo and is recruited to membranes following Wnt stimulation, where it binds to the Wnt co-receptor low-density lipoprotein receptor-related protein 6 (LRP6) in cellular models. LRRK2, therefore, bridges membrane and cytosolic components of Wnt signaling. Changes in LRRK2 expression affects pathway activity, while pathogenic LRRK2 mutants reduce both signal strength and the LRRK2–LRP6 interaction. Thus, decreased LRRK2-mediated Wnt signaling caused by reduced binding to LRP6 may underlie the neurodegeneration observed in PD. Finally, a newly developed LRRK2 kinase inhibitor disrupted Wnt signaling to a similar extent as pathogenic LRRK2 mutations. The use of LRRK2 kinase inhibition to treat PD may therefore need reconsideration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Berwick
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, UK
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Martinez-Fong D, Bannon MJ, Trudeau LE, Gonzalez-Barrios JA, Arango-Rodriguez ML, Hernandez-Chan NG, Reyes-Corona D, Armendáriz-Borunda J, Navarro-Quiroga I. NTS-Polyplex: a potential nanocarrier for neurotrophic therapy of Parkinson's disease. NANOMEDICINE-NANOTECHNOLOGY BIOLOGY AND MEDICINE 2012; 8:1052-69. [PMID: 22406187 DOI: 10.1016/j.nano.2012.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2011] [Revised: 02/14/2012] [Accepted: 02/20/2012] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Nanomedicine has focused on targeted neurotrophic gene delivery to the brain as a strategy to stop and reverse neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease. Because of improved transfection ability, synthetic nanocarriers have become candidates for neurotrophic therapy. Neurotensin (NTS)-polyplex is a "Trojan horse" synthetic nanocarrier system that enters dopaminergic neurons through NTS receptor internalization to deliver a genetic cargo. The success of preclinical studies with different neurotrophic genes supports the possibility of using NTS-polyplex in nanomedicine. In this review, we describe the mechanism of NTS-polyplex transfection. We discuss the concept that an effective neurotrophic therapy requires a simultaneous effect on the axon terminals and soma of the remaining dopaminergic neurons. We also discuss the future of this strategy for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. FROM THE CLINICAL EDITOR This review paper focuses on nanomedicine-based treatment of Parkinson's disease, a neurodegenerative condition with existing symptomatic but no curative treatment. Neurotensin-polyplex is a synthetic nanocarrier system that enables delivery of genetic cargo to dopaminergic neurons via NTS receptor internalization.
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Dorval V, Hébert SS. LRRK2 in Transcription and Translation Regulation: Relevance for Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2012; 3:12. [PMID: 22363314 PMCID: PMC3276974 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2012.00012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2011] [Accepted: 01/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the most common neurodegenerative movement disorder and is characterized by the selective loss of dopaminergic neurons and the presence of Lewy bodies. Mutations in the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are the most frequent cause of both familial and sporadic PD. One critical question is how PD-associated LRRK2 mutations cause neurodegeneration. Here, we discuss recent findings related to LRRK2-mediated regulation of gene expression and translation and provide a critical assessment of the current models that are used to address the impact of LRRK2 on the transcriptome. A better understanding of these mechanisms could provide important new clues into the function of LRRK2 during both normal and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Véronique Dorval
- Centre de Recherche du CHUQ, Axe Neurosciences, Université Laval Québec, QC, Canada
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36
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Microarray expression analysis in idiopathic and LRRK2-associated Parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2012; 45:462-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2011.08.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Revised: 08/19/2011] [Accepted: 08/26/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
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Srivastava G, Dixit A, Prakash O, Singh MP. Tiny non-coding RNAs in Parkinson's disease: implications, expectations and hypes. Neurochem Int 2011; 59:759-69. [PMID: 21807045 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2011.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2011] [Revised: 07/13/2011] [Accepted: 07/16/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent, progressive and aging related neurodegenerative disorder, characterized by the irreversible and selective degeneration of the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons. The early diagnosis, molecular explanation and permanent cure of this devastating and baffling disease have not yet been completely deciphered. Tiny non-coding RNAs, which consist of small or short interfering RNA (siRNA) and micro RNA (miRNA), intervene with and silence the expression of the specific genes through the evolutionary conserved process of RNA interference and act as post-transcriptional regulators. The differential expression patterns of miRNAs operate as key watchdogs and facilitate the identification of the potential therapeutic targets; however, miRNA modifiers aid in designing the strategies to encounter PD. Similarly, siRNA-mediated gene silencing paves the way to understand the function of the specific genes in PD pathogenesis by knocking down their expression. Applications of siRNAs and contributions of the potential miRNAs in investigating the etiology and molecular mechanisms of PD as well as in therapeutic interventions have been discussed in this article. The review also highlights the achievements, expectations and hypes associated with these tiny non-coding RNAs in PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garima Srivastava
- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research (Council of Scientific and Industrial Research), Mahatma Gandhi Marg, Post Box 80, Lucknow 226001, UP, India
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L'Episcopo F, Serapide MF, Tirolo C, Testa N, Caniglia S, Morale MC, Pluchino S, Marchetti B. A Wnt1 regulated Frizzled-1/β-Catenin signaling pathway as a candidate regulatory circuit controlling mesencephalic dopaminergic neuron-astrocyte crosstalk: Therapeutical relevance for neuron survival and neuroprotection. Mol Neurodegener 2011; 6:49. [PMID: 21752258 PMCID: PMC3162575 DOI: 10.1186/1750-1326-6-49] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/02/2011] [Accepted: 07/13/2011] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Dopamine-synthesizing (dopaminergic, DA) neurons in the ventral midbrain (VM) constitute a pivotal neuronal population controlling motor behaviors, cognitive and affective brain functions, which generation critically relies on the activation of Wingless-type MMTV integration site (Wnt)/β-catenin pathway in their progenitors. In Parkinson's disease, DA cell bodies within the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) progressively degenerate, with causes and mechanisms poorly understood. Emerging evidence suggests that Wnt signaling via Frizzled (Fzd) receptors may play a role in different degenerative states, but little is known about Wnt signaling in the adult midbrain. Using in vitro and in vivo model systems of DA degeneration, along with functional studies in both intact and SN lesioned mice, we herein highlight an intrinsic Wnt1/Fzd-1/β-catenin tone critically contributing to the survival and protection of adult midbrain DA neurons. RESULTS In vitro experiments identifie Fzd-1 receptor expression at a mRNA and protein levels in dopamine transporter (DAT) expressing neurons, and demonstrate the ability of exogenous Wnt1 to exert robust neuroprotective effects against Caspase-3 activation, the loss of tyrosine hydroxylase-positive (TH+) neurons and [3H] dopamine uptake induced by different DA-specific insults, including serum and growth factor deprivation, 6-hydroxydopamine and MPTP/MPP+. Co-culture of DA neurons with midbrain astrocytes phenocopies Wnt1 neuroprotective effects, whereas RNA interference-mediated knockdown of Wnt1 in midbrain astrocytes markedly reduces astrocyte-induced TH+ neuroprotection. Likewise, silencing β-catenin mRNA or knocking down Fzd-1 receptor expression in mesencephalic neurons counteract astrocyte-induced TH+ neuroprotection. In vivo experiments document Fzd-1 co-localization with TH+ neurons within the intact SNpc and blockade of Fzd/β-catenin signaling by unilateral infusion of a Fzd/β-catenin antagonist within the SN induces reactive astrocytosis and acutely inhibits TH+ neuron survival in ipsilateral SNpc, an effect efficiently prevented by pharmacological activation of β-catenin signaling within the SNpc. CONCLUSION These results defining a novel Wnt1/Fzd-1/β-catenin astrocyte-DA autoprotective loop provide a new mechanistic inside into the regulation of pro-survival processes, with potentially relevant consequences for drug design or drug action in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesca L'Episcopo
- OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section; Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Maria F Serapide
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
| | - Cataldo Tirolo
- OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section; Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Nunzio Testa
- OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section; Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Salvatore Caniglia
- OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section; Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Maria C Morale
- OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section; Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
| | - Stefano Pluchino
- Cambridge Centre for Brain Repair Department of Clinical Neurosciences ED Adrian Building Forvie Site Robinson Way Cambridge CB2 0PY, USA
| | - Bianca Marchetti
- OASI Institute for Research and Care on Mental Retardation and Brain Aging, Neuropharmacology Section; Via Conte Ruggero 73, 94018 Troina (EN), Italy
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Biomedicine, Pharmacology Section, Faculty of Medicine, and Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Catania, Viale A. Doria 6, 95125 Catania, Italy
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Berwick DC, Harvey K. LRRK2 signaling pathways: the key to unlocking neurodegeneration? Trends Cell Biol 2011; 21:257-65. [PMID: 21306901 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcb.2011.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2010] [Revised: 12/21/2010] [Accepted: 01/04/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Mutations in PARK8, encoding leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), are a major cause of Parkinson's disease. We contrast data suggesting that changes in LRRK2 activity cause alterations in mitogen-activated protein kinase, translational control, tumor necrosis factor α/Fas ligand and Wnt signaling pathways with the cell biological functions of LRRK2 such as vesicle trafficking. Despite scarce in vivo data on cell signaling, involvement in diverse cell biological functions suggests a role for LRRK2 as an upstream regulator in events leading to neurodegeneration. To stimulate discussion and give direction for future research, we further suggest that despite the importance of the catalytic activity for cytotoxicity, the main cellular function of LRRK2 is linked to assembly of signaling complexes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Berwick
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
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40
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Daniëls V, Baekelandt V, Taymans JM. On the Road to Leucine-Rich Repeat Kinase 2 Signalling: Evidence from Cellular and in vivo Studies. Neurosignals 2011; 19:1-15. [DOI: 10.1159/000324488] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2011] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
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Reid G, Kirschner MB, van Zandwijk N. Circulating microRNAs: Association with disease and potential use as biomarkers. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2010; 92:1071-7. [PMID: 21145252 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.23377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 01/21/2014] [Accepted: 02/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The control of gene expression by microRNAs influences many cellular processes and has been implicated in the control of many (patho)physiological states. Recently, microRNAs have been detected in serum and plasma, and circulating microRNA profiles have now been associated with a range of different tumour types, diseases such as stroke and heart disease, as well as altered physiological states such as pregnancy. Here we review the disease-specific profiles of circulating microRNAs, and the methodologies used for their detection and quantification. We also discuss possible functions of circulating microRNAs and their potential as non-invasive biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Glen Reid
- Asbestos Diseases Research Institute (ADRI), Bernie Banton Centre, University of Sydney, Concord, Australia.
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42
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Haebig K, Gloeckner CJ, Miralles MG, Gillardon F, Schulte C, Riess O, Ueffing M, Biskup S, Bonin M. ARHGEF7 (Beta-PIX) acts as guanine nucleotide exchange factor for leucine-rich repeat kinase 2. PLoS One 2010; 5:e13762. [PMID: 21048939 PMCID: PMC2966438 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0013762] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mutations within the leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) gene are a common cause of familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease. The multidomain protein LRRK2 exhibits overall low GTPase and kinase activity in vitro. Methodology/Principal Findings Here, we show that the rho guanine nucleotide exchange factor ARHGEF7 and the small GTPase CDC42 are interacting with LRRK2 in vitro and in vivo. GTPase activity of full-length LRRK2 increases in the presence of recombinant ARHGEF7. Interestingly, LRRK2 phosphorylates ARHGEF7 in vitro at previously unknown phosphorylation sites. We provide evidence that ARHGEF7 might act as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for LRRK2 and that R1441C mutant LRRK2 with reduced GTP hydrolysis activity also shows reduced binding to ARHGEF7. Conclusions/Significance Downstream effects of phosphorylation of ARHGEF7 through LRRK2 could be (i) a feedback control mechanism for LRRK2 activity as well as (ii) an impact of LRRK2 on actin cytoskeleton regulation. A newly identified familial mutation N1437S, localized within the GTPase domain of LRRK2, further underlines the importance of the GTPase domain of LRRK2 in Parkinson's disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Haebig
- Institute of Human Genetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Christian Johannes Gloeckner
- Department of Protein Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
- Center for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Marta Garcia Miralles
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Frank Gillardon
- Boehringer-Ingelheim Pharma GmbH & Co. KG, CNS Research, Biberach an der Riss, Germany
| | - Claudia Schulte
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Olaf Riess
- Institute of Human Genetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Marius Ueffing
- Department of Protein Science, Helmholtz-Zentrum München, Munich, Germany
- Center for Ophthalmology, Institute for Ophthalmic Research, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Saskia Biskup
- Institute of Human Genetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
- Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research and German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
- * E-mail: (SB); (MB)
| | - Michael Bonin
- Institute of Human Genetics, Department of Medical Genetics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
- * E-mail: (SB); (MB)
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Meixner A, Boldt K, Van Troys M, Askenazi M, Gloeckner CJ, Bauer M, Marto JA, Ampe C, Kinkl N, Ueffing M. A QUICK screen for Lrrk2 interaction partners--leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 is involved in actin cytoskeleton dynamics. Mol Cell Proteomics 2010; 10:M110.001172. [PMID: 20876399 DOI: 10.1074/mcp.m110.001172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 96] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
Mutations in human leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (Lrrk2), a protein of yet unknown function, are linked to Parkinson's disease caused by degeneration of midbrain dopaminergic neurons. The protein comprises several domains including a GTPase and a kinase domain both affected by several pathogenic mutations. To elucidate the molecular interaction network of endogenous Lrrk2 under stoichiometric constraints, we applied QUICK (quantitative immunoprecipitation combined with knockdown) in NIH3T3 cells. The identified interactome reveals actin isoforms as well as actin-associated proteins involved in actin filament assembly, organization, rearrangement, and maintenance, suggesting that the biological function of Lrrk2 is linked to cytoskeletal dynamics. In fact, we demonstrate Lrrk2 de novo binding to F-actin and its ability to modulate its assembly in vitro. When tested in intact cells, knockdown of Lrrk2 causes morphological alterations in NIH3T3 cells. In developing dopaminergic midbrain primary neurons, Lrrk2 knockdown results in shortened neurite processes, indicating a physiological role of Lrrk2 in cytoskeletal organization and dynamics of dopaminergic neurons. Hence, our results demonstrate that molecular interactions as well as the physiological function of Lrrk2 are closely related to the organization of the actin-based cytoskeleton, a crucial feature of neuronal development and neuron function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Meixner
- Department of Protein Science, Helmholtz Zentrum München-German Research Center for Environmental Health (GmbH), 85764 Neuherberg, Germany
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Rogers D, Schor NF. The child is father to the man: developmental roles for proteins of importance for neurodegenerative disease. Ann Neurol 2010; 67:151-8. [PMID: 20225270 DOI: 10.1002/ana.21841] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Although Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases predominately affect elderly adults, the proteins that play a role in the pathogenesis of these diseases are expressed throughout life. In fact, many of the proteins hypothesized to be important in the progression of neurodegeneration play direct or indirect roles in the development of the central nervous system. The systems affected by these proteins include neural stem cell fate decisions, neuronal differentiation, cellular migration, protection from oxidative stress, and programmed cell death. Insights into the developmental roles of these proteins may ultimately impact the understanding of neurodegenerative diseases and lead to the discovery of novel treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Danny Rogers
- Departments of Pediatrics, Neurology, and Neurobiology & Anatomy, University of Rochester Medical Center, Rochester, NY 14642, USA
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Mutez E, Larvor L, Leprêtre F, Mouroux V, Hamalek D, Kerckaert JP, Pérez-Tur J, Waucquier N, Vanbesien-Mailliot C, Duflot A, Devos D, Defebvre L, Kreisler A, Frigard B, Destée A, Chartier-Harlin MC. Transcriptional profile of Parkinson blood mononuclear cells with LRRK2 mutation. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 32:1839-48. [PMID: 20096956 DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2009.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2009] [Revised: 10/07/2009] [Accepted: 10/27/2009] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To gain insight into systemic molecular events associated with an age-related neurodegenerative disorder, we compared gene expression patterns in peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) sampled from elderly, healthy controls and from Parkinson's disease (PD) patients carrying the most frequently found mutation of the LRRK2 gene (G2019S). A transcriptomic approach enabled us to detect differentially expressed genes and revealed perturbations of pathways known to be involved in PD-related neurodegeneration: the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the mitochondrial oxidation system, inflammation, axonal guidance, calcium signalling and apoptosis. Moreover, alterations of the MAP kinase pathway, the actin cytoskeleton, the ephrin receptor system and vesicular transport - all recently associated with the LRRK2 G2019S mutation pathogenesis - were noted. Furthermore, we acquired new evidences of dysregulation in leukocyte extravasation signalling and immune system pathways in PD. These data show that the G2019S mutation affects the entire body and highlight some of the molecular events observed in the brain. This PBMC transcriptomic approach could be used to better understand neurodegeneration in PD and decipher new pathogenetic mechanisms, even at early stages of the disease.
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Mutez E, Larvor L, Leprêtre F, Mouroux V, Hamalek D, Kerckaert JP, Pérez-Tur J, Waucquier N, Vanbesien-Mailliot C, Duflot A, Devos D, Defebvre L, Kreisler A, Frigard B, Destée A, Chartier-Harlin MC. Étude transcriptomique de cellules mononucléées sanguines de patients parkinsoniens porteurs de la mutation G2019S de LRRK2. Rev Neurol (Paris) 2010. [DOI: 10.1016/s0035-3787(10)70016-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, complex, multidomain protein containing kinase and GTPase enzymatic activities and multiple protein-protein interaction domains. Mutations linked to autosomal dominant forms of Parkinson's disease result in amino acid changes throughout the protein and alterations in both its enzymatic properties and interactions. The best characterized mutation to date, G2019S, leads to increased kinase activity, and mutations in the GTPase domain, such as R1441C and R1441G, have also been reported to influence kinase activity. Therefore, an examination of LRRK2's properties as a kinase is important for understanding the mechanisms underlying the disorder and has the potential to lead to therapeutics. These findings also suggest that there may be complex interplay between the functional domains of LRRK2. Here, we review LRRK2's biochemical functions based on structural and kinetic studies of the enzymatic domains, its potential substrates and the role of its interactions. Despite the field's embryonic understanding of the true relevance of these substrates and interactions, initial studies are providing clues with respect to its pathophysiological functions. Together, these findings should increase our understanding of mechanisms underlying Parkinson's disease and place LRRK2 as a unique molecular target for effective therapeutic development.
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Abstract
The detailed characterization of the function of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) may provide insight into the molecular basis of neurodegeneration in Parkinson's disease (PD) because mutations in LRRK2 cause a phenotype with strong overlap to typical late-onset disease and LRRK2 mutations are responsible for significant proportions of PD in some populations. The complexity of large multidomain protein kinases such as LRRK2 challenges traditional functional approaches, although initial studies have successfully defined the basic mechanisms of enzyme activity with respect to the putative effects of pathogenic mutations on kinase activity. The role of LRRK2 in cells remains elusive, with potential function in mitogen-activated protein kinase pathways, protein translation control, programmed cell death pathways and activity in cytoskeleton dynamics. The initial focus on LRRK2-kinase-dependent phenomena places emphasis on the discovery of LRRK2 kinase substrates, although candidate substrates are so far confined to in vitro assays. Here, hypothetical mechanisms for LRRK2-mediated cell death and kinase activation are proposed. As a promising target for neuroprotection strategies in PD, in vitro and in vivo models that accurately demonstrate LRRK2's function relevant to neurodegeneration will aide in the identification of molecules with the highest chance of success in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip J Webber
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurodegeneration and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL, USA
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Abstract
Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) cause autosomal-dominant familial Parkinson's disease. We generated lines of Caenorhabditis elegans expressing neuronally directed human LRRK2. Expressing human LRRK2 increased nematode survival in response to rotenone or paraquat, which are agents that cause mitochondrial dysfunction. Protection by G2019S, R1441C, or kinase-dead LRRK2 was less than protection by wild-type LRRK2. Knockdown of lrk-1, the endogenous ortholog of LRRK2 in C. elegans, reduced survival associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. C. elegans expressing LRRK2 showed rapid loss of dopaminergic markers (DAT::GFP fluorescence and dopamine levels) beginning in early adulthood. Loss of dopaminergic markers was greater for the G2019S LRRK2 line than for the wild-type line. Rotenone treatment induced a larger loss of dopamine markers in C. elegans expressing G2019S LRRK2 than in C. elegans expressing wild-type LRRK2; however, loss of dopaminergic markers in the G2019S LRRK2 nematode lines was not statistically different from that in the control line. These data suggest that LRRK2 plays an important role in modulating the response to mitochondrial inhibition and raises the possibility that mutations in LRRK2 selectively enhance the vulnerability of dopaminergic neurons to a stressor associated with Parkinson's disease.
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Sancho RM, Law BMH, Harvey K. Mutations in the LRRK2 Roc-COR tandem domain link Parkinson's disease to Wnt signalling pathways. Hum Mol Genet 2009; 18:3955-68. [PMID: 19625296 PMCID: PMC2748899 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddp337] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in PARK8, encoding LRRK2, are the most common known cause of Parkinson's disease. The LRRK2 Roc-COR tandem domain exhibits GTPase activity controlling LRRK2 kinase activity via an intramolecular process. We report the interaction of LRRK2 with the dishevelled family of phosphoproteins (DVL1-3), key regulators of Wnt (Wingless/Int) signalling pathways important for axon guidance, synapse formation and neuronal maintenance. Interestingly, DVLs can interact with and mediate the activation of small GTPases with structural similarity to the LRRK2 Roc domain. The LRRK2 Roc-COR domain and the DVL1 DEP domain were necessary and sufficient for LRRK2-DVL1 interaction. Co-expression of DVL1 increased LRRK2 steady-state protein levels, an effect that was dependent on the DEP domain. Strikingly, LRRK2-DVL1-3 interactions were disrupted by the familial PARK8 mutation Y1699C, whereas pathogenic mutations at residues R1441 and R1728 strengthened LRRK2-DVL1 interactions. Co-expression of DVL1 with LRRK2 in mammalian cells resulted in the redistribution of LRRK2 to typical cytoplasmic DVL1 aggregates in HEK293 and SH-SY5Y cells and co-localization in neurites and growth cones of differentiated dopaminergic SH-SY5Y cells. This is the first report of the modulation of a key LRRK2-accessory protein interaction by PARK8 Roc-COR domain mutations segregating with Parkinson's disease. Since the DVL1 DEP domain is known to be involved in the regulation of small GTPases, we propose that: (i) DVLs may influence LRRK2 GTPase activity, and (ii) Roc-COR domain mutations modulating LRRK2-DVL interactions indirectly influence kinase activity. Our findings also link LRRK2 to Wnt signalling pathways, suggesting novel pathogenic mechanisms and new targets for genetic analysis in Parkinson's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rosa M Sancho
- Department of Pharmacology, The School of Pharmacy, Brunswick Square, London, UK
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